Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Aristotle's Concept of Substance and Reality

The reality, or substance, to which Aristotle alludes exists by itself; it is not inserted into anything else and therefore does not need anything else to be referred to. Unlike Plato, for whom these entities were ideas, for Aristotle, substance constitutes reality. The first things are the specific individuals.

Primary and Secondary Substances

We can ascribe attributes to individual beings, but these attributes do not exist sufficiently on their own; they do not exist if there were no specific individual beings to whom we predicate them. In summary:

• Individual beings are the primary substance because without them, there would be no world or nothing to speak of.
• Species (which apply to individual beings)

The Concept of Guilt in Criminal Law

In a broad sense, guilt is the set of assumptions that underlie the personal blameworthiness of illegal behavior.

Theories of Guilt

• Normativist Theory: Guilt is the reproach made to the perpetrator of a criminal offense, linking them through a psychological motivation. This theory considers the extent to which the perpetrator's behavior was known or knowable, and whether they could have been required to proceed in accordance with the rules.
• Psychological Theory: Guilt is conceptualized as the psychic mode of the perpetrator's behavior, grounding criminal responsibility from the perspective of their capacity, knowledge, and freedom of determination.

Dolo (Criminal Intent)

Dolo, as identified in Article 34, Section... Continue reading "Understanding Guilt and Criminal Intent in Legal Theory" »

Karl Popper: Critique of Utopian Political Thought

Karl Popper distinguished between two fundamental societal conceptions:

• Closed Society

  A *mythic-rational conception* characterized by rigid standards, often upheld by tradition and totalitarian power.

• Open Society

  A *rational design* where society prioritizes individual interests, featuring flexible rules that adapt when proven inefficient in solving problems.

The Triple Error of Utopian Conceptions

Popper identified three critical errors in utopian thinking:

• The *epistemological error*: believing we possess thorough knowledge of society.
• The *metaphysical error*: conceiving society as an entity separate and distinct from its constituent individuals.
• The *ethical error*: asserting that the absolute

Real Estate Valuation Methods

Cost Method and Replacement Value

The Cost Method, comparison, and residual income update are essential for property appraisal. Q represents the loss experienced by the VRB (Replacement Value) of goods according to their components. It is defined as the sum of investments that would be required for current construction. In the valuation of all types of buildings and elements within a project, the cost method is applied to built structures.

Comparison Method and Market Witnesses

To apply the comparison method, one must have at least six witnesses (comparables). From the survey prices, agency commissions must be deducted. It is necessary to increase the value of the witness when it is less than the value of the subject... Continue reading "Real Estate Valuation and Construction Safety Standards" »

The Definition of Philosophy

Philosophy is fundamentally the love of wisdom. Born in Ancient Greece, the term itself expresses a profound trend towards wisdom, driven by wonder and questioning. This inherent curiosity is an essential feature of Greek thought, stemming from the need to explain and understand the world, life, and existence. This philosophical attitude minimizes the fear and reverence for the unknown by seeking rational explanations.

Key Characteristics of Philosophical Thought

1. Foundation Seeking: Philosophy attempts to find the ultimate foundation or principle underlying ideas and reality.
2. Meaning Creation: It strives to give meaning and purpose to our lives.
3. Universal Science: It is considered a science when referring to the causes

Hume's Empiricism: Experience and the Origin of Ideas

David Hume believes that experience is the source of all knowledge. He asserts that initially, we only know that some of the representations that appear in consciousness are very sharp and intense, while others are faint. The first are called impressions (which may involve feeling or sensing). The latter are called ideas (which involve thinking). Assuming that impressions originate in the outside world is merely an assumption that Hume will investigate. True to the empiricist principle of admitting as true only what is the product of pure experience, Hume sets the fundamental rule of his work:

The Correspondence Principle

There can be no other source for ideas than impressions. Every idea must

The philosophy of Socrates is a therapy to relieve people from ignorance and guide them toward the truth. Even if a definitive answer is not reached, any response is novel because it becomes a new question. Its ultimate purpose is to inspire an intense and constant search for truth.

Socratic Moral Intellectualism as an Ethical Theory

Socrates believed in virtue as a universal and objective reality that can be known and accepted by any human being through reason, helping to grow the soul and create good citizens. The wise seek virtue in the exercise of power to achieve happiness. Under this view, the category of knowledge equates to true answers to ethical and moral issues. Finding the truth is a collective task.

According to Socratic thought:

• It

Descartes: The Father of Modernism

NEWS: René Descartes is considered the father of modernism. Modern thought is characterized by recovering the autonomy of reason against faith. His rationalism was an attempt to regain the lost confidence in the effectiveness of our knowledge, to reassess the "thinking self" or "human subject" in the face of reality.

The Cartesian System and the Thinking Self

The Cartesian system suggests we can attain clear and distinct truths (i.e., "true" knowledge). As we know, this overconfidence led Descartes to use reason to rationally prove God's existence. So much so that many of his arguments recall Saint Augustine.

On the other hand, "Cogito, ergo sum" is one of the most significant statements in the history of thought.... Continue reading "Descartes and the Legacy of Modern Rationalism" »

Understanding Doubt and Appearance

In philosophy, questioning our reality begins with understanding different forms of doubt and the nature of appearance.

Types of Doubt

• Rational Doubt: This involves rejecting all previous justifications and explanations to rebuild knowledge from a new foundation. Rational doubt is a consequence of a determined will to find truth.
• Existential Doubt: In this state, the world itself is not lost, but the meaning of existence is what has been lost.

The Nature of Appearance

Appearance is what something seems to be. We often assume things are as they appear because constantly questioning everything would be paralyzing. Philosophy, however, aims to overcome mere appearance.

Key Concepts Related to Appearance:

• Phenomenon vs.

The Problem of Relations Between Soul and Body

Plato: The Primacy of the Soul

Plato posits that the human being is composed of body and soul, yet the soul takes precedence. It is the source of goodness and rational knowledge, whereas the body is merely a recipient of alamos (desires), carrying passions, animal instincts, and leading to errors in judgment. The human soul is immortal; its union with the body is momentary. Upon death, the soul accesses another dimension to achieve true knowledge before eventually reincarnating.

Plato divides the soul into three parts, each with distinct functions and moral virtues, corresponding to an ideal political state and specific types of citizens. A balanced human requires the rational part to govern the will... Continue reading "Philosophy of Soul and Body: From Plato to Aquinas" »