Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Creationism posits that the world and living beings were created by God, contrasting with evolutionary theories. This concept forms the basis of many religious beliefs and is central to Christian doctrines. Our culture often grounds itself in the Bible, a sacred text for both Jews and Christians.

Fixism: The Unchanging Species

Fixism, a scientific theory, asserts that plant and animal species do not evolve but remain constant over time. This fixist view has a long history in European thought, rooted in the ideas of Aristotle and aligned with the creationist interpretation derived from a literal reading of the Bible. This gave rise to fixism.

To explain the existence of fossils representing extinct species and the emergence of new ones, creationism...

Ortega's Period

Ortega was born in Madrid in 1883 and died in 1955. He dedicated himself to his family and political journalism. He spent holidays in Zumaia and Azpeitia. Among his works is "Invertebrate Spain." He was the team director for "The Revolt of the Masses." In "The Revolt of the Masses," the mass-man is satisfied with mediocrity, without personality. In "Beliefs and Ideas," he commented on what we read here. Spain's main instability was during the Restoration, Primo de Rivera's dictatorship, the Second Republic, and the Civil War. The colonies of Cuba and the Philippines were lost, and there was a crisis in agriculture, the economy, and politics. This is called "the Crisis of '98." He was a fan of Neokantianism in the beginning and...

Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Development

Pre-conventional Morality

At this level, there is no understanding of social rules. Moral questions are considered only from a personal perspective.

Conventional Morality

Judgments are made based on the rules and expectations of the individual's social group. Moral issues are addressed to maintain membership within the group.

Post-conventional Morality

Individuals understand societal rules but are not limited by them. Thought is governed by principles and values accepted because they are based on general principles. Moral reasoning involves:

• Defining what is good.
• Using reasons to defend the perception of good.

Kohlberg's Moral Education

The goal is to maximize the capacity for moral judgment development through:...

Bioethical Principles and Frameworks

It is universally accepted that ethical questions are necessary in relation to the life sciences. The differences arise in defining the limit of what is unethical. Various models provide different limits.

Anthropological Aspects of the Human Embryo

1. The body of the embryo from its earliest stages is not a single cell but a human person.
2. The body of the embryo develops gradually according to a well-defined process with an end in itself: the birth of a child.
3. The embryo is a human being. It has a spiritual soul. It is a Person and therefore possesses the dignity of a person.

The human being is always the same; there is no change of nature at any time. It always possesses the nature of a person.

Ethical Considerations

We are in the sensible world, an order of efficient causes.

However, nothing is the efficient cause of itself; it would be prior to itself, which is impossible. Efficient causes cannot proceed indefinitely.

1. Order in Efficient Causes: The first is due to the intermediate, and the intermediate, whether one or multiple, is the last. If you remove the cause, the effect disappears. If there were no first in the order of efficient causes, there would be no last or second.

2. Infinite Efficient Causes: If we take efficient causes to infinity, there would be no first efficient cause, and consequently, no ultimate effect or intermediate cause, which is false. Therefore, it is necessary to admit a first efficient cause: God.

Explanation

This is the argument...

Aristotle's Physics: The Nature of Being and Motion

Aristotle attempted to overcome the gulf that Plato had introduced between the intelligible world and the sensible world. This separation was unmaintainable for Aristotle.

Like Heraclitus, Aristotle believed that natural beings are subject to constant movement. The very condition of physical beings is to be mobile. Nature, for Aristotle, is a principle of movement and change. To think of the physical world is to think of it as becoming—a continuous transformation that responds to a reason or logos.

The Principle of Motion and Change

Aristotle rejects an external principle of motion for things and is compelled, in a sense, to admit that 'not-being' exists within the real, since any change is...

Descartes: The Method

Descartes' problem was the worry about the merits of the many mistakes regarding knowledge. He recognized that over the centuries, many mistakes had been presented and defended as unquestionable truths. If human reason was a valuable and effective tool, why could science and the philosophy of science not advance? Descartes thought that a method had enabled him to find safety in knowledge, but philosophy lacked a proper method. The mathematical method introduced here gives human reason a definitive criterion of truth. According to Galileo, mathematics is seen as a rational science that brings order to the chaos of data. Descartes was convinced that, just as geometers could make things easier from the more complex without...

Human Sciences and Empiricism: A Philosophical Inquiry

Hume's Empirical Approach to Human Understanding

Hume's primary objective was to establish a science of man based on empirical observation. He sought to understand humans through data derived from experience. This philosophy contrasted sharply with Platonic and Aristotelian thought. To develop a science of man, Hume believed it was essential to establish a doctrine of knowledge that would determine truth. This involved analyzing key issues within the empiricist tradition, such as ideas of essence and substance. Finally, Hume focused on understanding passions and analyzing moral actions, arguing that humans are governed by their passions more than reason. His philosophy challenged traditionally...

Plan and Expressions for Rendering Text

1. The Title of the Article

The plan for rendering the text: The title of the article/text.

Expressions to be used:

• The title of the article (text) is...
• The title of the article (text) under consideration is...
• The text is headlined...
• The headline of the article I have read is...

2. Author and Publication Information

The plan for rendering the text: The author of the article/text; where and when the article/text was published.

Expressions to be used:

• The author of the article/text is...
• The article/text is written by...
• It is (was) published in...
• It is (was) printed in...

3. The Main Idea and Purpose

The plan for rendering the text: The main idea of the article/text.

Expressions to be used:

• The main idea of the article/

Decision Making and Career Development

• Decision Making: A wise decision, be faced with, feel uncertain about, give priority to, have the freedom to, lose out, reach a decision, settle on, struggle, take advice, think over, weigh up.
• Professional Terms: Account, current, hands-on, invest, get a foot in the door, on the lookout, result in, suit.
• Career Path: Growing industry, pension plan, reference letter, starting salary, vacant position, be made redundant, be self-employed, get a promotion, health insurance, perks of the job, work overtime, be fired, board, lead, set, fold, point.

Financial Literacy and Time Management

• Finance: Allowance, balance, blessing, debit card, donate, fortune, income, live on, repay debt, savings, small change, wealthy.