Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

René Descartes' philosophical system begins with the indubitable truth of the cogito: "I think, therefore I am." From this foundational certainty of our own existence and thought, Descartes proceeds to demonstrate the existence of God. He asserts that without proving God's existence and goodness, it is impossible to achieve certainty about anything else, as a deceptive God could undermine all our perceptions.

The Argument from Innate Ideas and Perfection

Descartes posits that all that exists in our mind for conceiving things are ideas. Among the various types of ideas, some are neither derived from external things nor created by our imagination; these are innate ideas. They arise from the mere capacity to think, by the lumen naturale rationis... Continue reading "Descartes' Philosophical Arguments for God's Existence" »

Plato: Athenian Philosopher's Early Life

Plato was born in Athens in 427 BC into a noble family. He received an education in music and gymnastics. A pivotal moment in his life occurred in 407 BC when he met his future mentor, Socrates. Plato studied under Socrates for about eight years until Socrates was convicted of corrupting the youth. Socrates was condemned to drink hemlock and died, refusing to renounce his sentence, accompanied by close friends at his final meal.

Plato was not present during his teacher's final moments, an event reported in the Phaedo. This outrageous injustice likely became the prototype for the philosophical struggle Plato dedicated his life to. Because of this event, the philosopher consistently attacked democracy as... Continue reading "Plato's Life and Founding of the Academy" »

Thomas Aquinas' Five Ways to God's Existence

Thomas Aquinas' demonstrations of the existence of God, famously known as "The Five Ways" (Quinque Viae), have profoundly influenced philosophical and theological thought. Aquinas deemed it necessary to prove God's existence because it is not immediately obvious to human reason. He asserted that such a demonstration is possible by observing the sensible world around us.

Aquinas did not accept the ontological argument proposed by Anselm of Canterbury, which relies solely on a priori reasoning and dispenses with empirical experience. While "The Five Ways" are presented as five distinct arguments in the Summa Theologica, only four appear in the Summa Contra Gentiles. The exact number, however, is less... Continue reading "Thomas Aquinas' Five Proofs for God's Existence" »

Platonic Anthropological Dualism

Plato has a dualistic conception of man: man is composed of body and soul, which is known as anthropological dualism. Influenced by his master Pythagoras, he considered the union of soul and body purely accidental. The soul is considered immortal and immaterial and takes precedence over the body. It is the vital principle that gives life to the body and is also the beginning of knowledge.

The soul is a reality somewhere between the two worlds, tending to the Intelligible World, where it is referred to have pre-existed among the Ideas. Upon entering the Sensible World and being incarnated in a body, the mind forgets the Ideas, and only a trace remains, blurred and confused (the innateness of ideas). Thus, the theory

Nietzsche on the Body

According to traditional philosophers, human beings have a body, but are not a body. Plato or Descartes' concept of the "soul" subsumes all human reality. This is a consequence of their way of valuing: the senses deceive us (by showing becoming as real) and, consequently, everything sensible, like the body, acquires a negative connotation.

On the other hand, the body is related to the passions, to the irrational, and to pleasure—that is, to all those vital values to which the Western tradition has declared hostility.

For Nietzsche, radically opposing such a decadent way of assessing and interpreting the ontological structure of man, man is none other than a living body. The body is the being of man, his own integrity:

"I

The Seventeenth Century: A Period of Crisis and Insecurity

The seventeenth century was a period of crisis and insecurity across critical areas: political-social, religious, scientific, cultural, and, of course, philosophical. In Europe, famine and crop disease made life precarious. In a society marked by stark differences, frequent social tensions arose between nobles and the bourgeoisie, as seen in England with its two revolutions (1648 and 1688), or between different states, exemplified by the Thirty Years' War between France and Germany (1618–1648).

Dominant Systems and Conflicts

• The dominant political system was absolute monarchy.
• In the religious sphere, the Protestant Reformation had divided believers into various groups fighting to impose

The Evolution of the Family

In our current era, family life has regained prestige among youth and those entering marriage, standing in stark contrast to the cultural shifts of the late 1960s. During that period, counter-cultural movements often advocated for free unions with minimal commitment, rejected traditional child-rearing, and promoted communal living where work, expenses, and parenting were shared without requirements for fidelity.

Today, it is often argued that the family is in crisis. Family ties have become more fragile, and the definition of family has diversified significantly. The traditional family structure has weakened, along with the traditional authority of the father, as the concept of passing down a specific profession or... Continue reading "Modern Family Dynamics and Changing Work Perspectives" »

The Role of the Owner

The owner of an enterprise refers to the individual or group holding ownership of the company. They contribute capital to establish it, purchase machinery, and sometimes provide goods, property, or plant. They can also provide both money and necessary assets.

These necessary resources can be provided by a single person or several individuals.

The Function of Management

In small companies, the owner typically runs the business themselves. However, it is also possible for this task to be performed by another person contracted to manage operations on their behalf.

This reality introduces another crucial concept: management (or direction). This function is exercised by those with the authority to set goals, make timely decisions... Continue reading "Business Ownership, Management, and Corporate Governance" »

The Nature of Political Institutions

Political institutions represent an attempt to organize life in common. They are a feature that has accompanied humanity since ancient times. These institutions provide ways of exercising power, such as developing standards and establishing laws.

Their primary functions include:

• Administering justice: A group of people is responsible for judging whether individuals follow the laws.
• Project management: Building and running projects for the people.
• War and organization: Deciding whether or not to participate in a war organization.
• Moral and religious criteria: Establishing ethical and religious frameworks for society.

The Development of Modern States

Modern states began to emerge in the Modern Age. Various philosophers... Continue reading "Foundations of Modern Political Institutions" »

The Enduring Legacy of Thomas Aquinas

Early Opposition and the Rise of Thomism

Following the death of Thomas Aquinas, his philosophy faced significant opposition, particularly from the Franciscans. They regarded Saint Augustine as the most faithful exponent of the Christian view. This opposition culminated in the condemnation of certain Thomistic doctrines by ecclesiastical authorities in Paris and Oxford in 1277. However, it soon became clear that these fears were unfounded. Following the canonization of Saint Thomas in 1323, Thomism expanded significantly, becoming a dominant intellectual force.

Reason and Faith: Aquinas Versus Augustine

A central theme in medieval philosophy is the ongoing debate between reason and faith. Thomas Aquinas, unlike... Continue reading "Thomas Aquinas: Reason, Faith, and Scholastic Philosophy" »