Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Theory of Knowledge

In The Discourse on Method (1637), Descartes summarizes the rules of method for attaining true knowledge in these four:

1. Do not accept as true anything that is not presented so clearly and distinctly that it does not fit doubt.
2. Divide the problems up to the simple natures.
3. Drive thoughts in order, going from the most simple to the more complex.
4. Make enumerations so complete and reviews so general that you can be sure not to forget anything.

It is, therefore, necessary to remove (considered as false) everything that is possible to doubt. In the Meditations, we can distinguish three levels of subsequent radicalization of methodical doubt:

1. He doubts that things are as they seem according to the testimony of the senses, as these have

Types of Employment Contracts

1. Work Experience Contract

• Purpose: To provide professional practice appropriate to the level of accredited studies.
• Requirements: Degree, diploma, or technical qualification.
• Duration: Minimum 6 months, maximum 2 years.
• Working Hours: Full-time or part-time.
• Remuneration: Stipulated by the collective agreement.

2. Interim Contract

• Purpose: To replace a worker with the right to retain their job or to fill a position during a selection process.
• Form: Must be in writing.
• Functions: Can perform the functions of the replaced worker or other duties.
• Duration: Until the replaced person returns.
• Working Hours: Full-time or part-time.

3. Specific Project or Service Contract

• Purpose: To perform a task or service with its own substance,

José Ortega y Gasset: Context

Ortega y Gasset was born in Madrid in 1883. He was a professor of metaphysics at the Central University of Madrid. He studied in Germany and acquired a solid neo-Kantian foundation, though he did not identify with this school. His work shows two main periods: the perspectivist period and the ratiovitalist period. Among his notable works are: History as a System, The Revolt of the Masses, and What is Philosophy?

Theme: The Categories of Life

The categories of life.

Key Ideas

• Human life is a radical reality, as all other realities must appear within it.
• Human life is doing something in order to exist.
• Life is not something given to us, but something we make. Life is a continuous pursuit.
• We are always compelled to do something,

John Locke's Liberal Social Contract

Locke's political thought is of great importance, as it forms the theoretical basis of the modern liberal state. His key tenets include:

1. According to Locke, man is a social being by nature, possessing certain natural rights.
2. In the state of nature, the most important rights are security and property. However, this coexistence may lead to excessive 'interest,' causing insecurity.
3. Therefore, to address these interests, Locke advocates for building a state that guarantees the life and property of its members. The state's mission is to serve its members, ensuring their welfare and protecting their property, which it may not dispose of.
4. To prevent any abuse of power or interests, power is split between the legislature

Plato's Theory of Knowledge

2.1 The Platonic Conception and Degrees of Knowledge

According to the Simile of the Line, there are two general forms of knowledge, which are further subdivided into two subtypes each:

1. Sensitive Knowledge (Doxa/Opinion)

This is second-order knowledge that only produces mere opinion (doxa). It is not real knowledge. It has two degrees:

• 1.1 Conjecture or Imagination (Eikasia): Knowledge of images, shadows, and reflections of sensible things.
• 1.2 Belief or Faith (Pistis): Knowledge of sensible things themselves.

2. Intellectual Knowledge (Episteme/Science)

This is knowledge of the universal (the Forms/Ideas). It also has two grades:

• 2.1 Discursive Reason (Dianoia): This gives us knowledge of mathematical objects, which are

Evolutionary Thought: From Origin to Modern Synthesis

The Human Desire to Know Origins

The desire to know where we come from and how we arrived at our current state is essential to understanding the origin of our species, according to established theories.

Fixism Contrasted with Evolution

Fixism, proposed by George Cuvier, posits that species are independent entities and have remained unchanged since their creation.

Conversely, Evolutionism suggests that the universe and life result from development. Species diversity arises from continuous changes and adjustments. While the foundations of evolutionism began in the eighteenth century, the theory solidified during the nineteenth century.

Lamarck's Theory of Evolution

Lamarck's theory rests on several... Continue reading "Understanding Evolutionary Theory: Fixism vs. Darwinism" »

The Picture of Dorian Gray: Character Profiles

Oscar Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray features a cast of memorable characters whose lives intertwine with the enigmatic Dorian Gray. From the influential Lord Henry to the tragic Sibyl Vane, these figures drive the novel's exploration of beauty, morality, and corruption.

Central Figures in Dorian Gray's Story

• Dorian Gray – A handsome and narcissistic young man who becomes enthralled with Lord Henry's idea of a new hedonism. He begins to indulge in every kind of pleasure, both moral and immoral, leading to his eventual corruption.
• Basil Hallward – An artist deeply infatuated with Dorian's beauty. Dorian helps Basil realize his artistic potential, as Basil's portrait of Dorian proves to be his

The Three Pillars of Stoic Philosophy

Stoics divided philosophy into three distinct parts: physics, logic (which includes the theory of knowledge), and ethics. While ethics is considered the most interesting and original component, it cannot be fully understood without the foundation of physics.

Stoic Physics and the Universal Order

Stoic physics, rooted in the philosophy of Heraclitus, views the world as a harmonious unit governed by the inflexible necessity of universal law, known as determinism. Stoics are the creators of the concepts of natural law and Providence.

• Cyclical Repetition: Nature is governed by a process of eternal recurrence, a necessary succession of unique events.
• Cosmic Consciousness: The universe is understood as a divine, living

Anthropological Dualism: Plato and Descartes

A key similarity between Plato and Descartes is their belief in anthropological dualism: the concept that humans are composed of two distinct parts, the soul (l'ànima) and the body. Both philosophers argue that absolute truth resides in the soul, while the body is the primary source of error.

Plato's View on the Soul

Plato posits that the soul is perfect, eternal, and existed in an intelligible world of ideas before uniting with the body. He introduces the Law of Reminiscence, suggesting that the soul encountered absolute truth before birth, but the union with the body causes it to forget, requiring a process of recollection to regain knowledge.

Descartes and the Cogito

For Descartes, the soul is defined... Continue reading "Plato vs. Descartes: Anthropological Dualism and Innate Ideas" »

René Descartes (1596-1650)

René Descartes (1596-1650) was a philosopher and mathematician. He was a key figure in the development of rationalism.

Descartes' Method

He devised a method that would allow progress with secure knowledge. This method is divided into four parts:

• Evidence: Do not accept anything that is not clearly evident to human reason.
• Analysis: Divide the problem into smaller parts and examine each one.
• Synthesis: Once you have the necessary elements, arrange them in an order, starting with the simplest and moving to the more complex.
• Enumeration: Review the process to ensure nothing has been omitted or done incorrectly.

The First Question and the First Truth

Descartes doubted all knowledge to arrive at a universal question. This doubt... Continue reading "Descartes: Rationalism, Method, and the Three Substances" »