Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

The philosophy of Socrates is a therapy to relieve people from ignorance and guide them toward the truth. Even if a definitive answer is not reached, any response is novel because it becomes a new question. Its ultimate purpose is to inspire an intense and constant search for truth.

Socratic Moral Intellectualism as an Ethical Theory

Socrates believed in virtue as a universal and objective reality that can be known and accepted by any human being through reason, helping to grow the soul and create good citizens. The wise seek virtue in the exercise of power to achieve happiness. Under this view, the category of knowledge equates to true answers to ethical and moral issues. Finding the truth is a collective task.

According to Socratic thought:

• It

Descartes: The Father of Modernism

NEWS: René Descartes is considered the father of modernism. Modern thought is characterized by recovering the autonomy of reason against faith. His rationalism was an attempt to regain the lost confidence in the effectiveness of our knowledge, to reassess the "thinking self" or "human subject" in the face of reality.

The Cartesian System and the Thinking Self

The Cartesian system suggests we can attain clear and distinct truths (i.e., "true" knowledge). As we know, this overconfidence led Descartes to use reason to rationally prove God's existence. So much so that many of his arguments recall Saint Augustine.

On the other hand, "Cogito, ergo sum" is one of the most significant statements in the history of thought.... Continue reading "Descartes and the Legacy of Modern Rationalism" »

Understanding Doubt and Appearance

In philosophy, questioning our reality begins with understanding different forms of doubt and the nature of appearance.

Types of Doubt

• Rational Doubt: This involves rejecting all previous justifications and explanations to rebuild knowledge from a new foundation. Rational doubt is a consequence of a determined will to find truth.
• Existential Doubt: In this state, the world itself is not lost, but the meaning of existence is what has been lost.

The Nature of Appearance

Appearance is what something seems to be. We often assume things are as they appear because constantly questioning everything would be paralyzing. Philosophy, however, aims to overcome mere appearance.

Key Concepts Related to Appearance:

• Phenomenon vs.

The Problem of Relations Between Soul and Body

Plato: The Primacy of the Soul

Plato posits that the human being is composed of body and soul, yet the soul takes precedence. It is the source of goodness and rational knowledge, whereas the body is merely a recipient of alamos (desires), carrying passions, animal instincts, and leading to errors in judgment. The human soul is immortal; its union with the body is momentary. Upon death, the soul accesses another dimension to achieve true knowledge before eventually reincarnating.

Plato divides the soul into three parts, each with distinct functions and moral virtues, corresponding to an ideal political state and specific types of citizens. A balanced human requires the rational part to govern the will... Continue reading "Philosophy of Soul and Body: From Plato to Aquinas" »

Theory of Knowledge

In The Discourse on Method (1637), Descartes summarizes the rules of method for attaining true knowledge in these four:

1. Do not accept as true anything that is not presented so clearly and distinctly that it does not fit doubt.
2. Divide the problems up to the simple natures.
3. Drive thoughts in order, going from the most simple to the more complex.
4. Make enumerations so complete and reviews so general that you can be sure not to forget anything.

It is, therefore, necessary to remove (considered as false) everything that is possible to doubt. In the Meditations, we can distinguish three levels of subsequent radicalization of methodical doubt:

1. He doubts that things are as they seem according to the testimony of the senses, as these have

Types of Employment Contracts

1. Work Experience Contract

• Purpose: To provide professional practice appropriate to the level of accredited studies.
• Requirements: Degree, diploma, or technical qualification.
• Duration: Minimum 6 months, maximum 2 years.
• Working Hours: Full-time or part-time.
• Remuneration: Stipulated by the collective agreement.

2. Interim Contract

• Purpose: To replace a worker with the right to retain their job or to fill a position during a selection process.
• Form: Must be in writing.
• Functions: Can perform the functions of the replaced worker or other duties.
• Duration: Until the replaced person returns.
• Working Hours: Full-time or part-time.

3. Specific Project or Service Contract

• Purpose: To perform a task or service with its own substance,

José Ortega y Gasset: Context

Ortega y Gasset was born in Madrid in 1883. He was a professor of metaphysics at the Central University of Madrid. He studied in Germany and acquired a solid neo-Kantian foundation, though he did not identify with this school. His work shows two main periods: the perspectivist period and the ratiovitalist period. Among his notable works are: History as a System, The Revolt of the Masses, and What is Philosophy?

Theme: The Categories of Life

The categories of life.

Key Ideas

• Human life is a radical reality, as all other realities must appear within it.
• Human life is doing something in order to exist.
• Life is not something given to us, but something we make. Life is a continuous pursuit.
• We are always compelled to do something,

John Locke's Liberal Social Contract

Locke's political thought is of great importance, as it forms the theoretical basis of the modern liberal state. His key tenets include:

1. According to Locke, man is a social being by nature, possessing certain natural rights.
2. In the state of nature, the most important rights are security and property. However, this coexistence may lead to excessive 'interest,' causing insecurity.
3. Therefore, to address these interests, Locke advocates for building a state that guarantees the life and property of its members. The state's mission is to serve its members, ensuring their welfare and protecting their property, which it may not dispose of.
4. To prevent any abuse of power or interests, power is split between the legislature

Plato's Theory of Knowledge

2.1 The Platonic Conception and Degrees of Knowledge

According to the Simile of the Line, there are two general forms of knowledge, which are further subdivided into two subtypes each:

1. Sensitive Knowledge (Doxa/Opinion)

This is second-order knowledge that only produces mere opinion (doxa). It is not real knowledge. It has two degrees:

• 1.1 Conjecture or Imagination (Eikasia): Knowledge of images, shadows, and reflections of sensible things.
• 1.2 Belief or Faith (Pistis): Knowledge of sensible things themselves.

2. Intellectual Knowledge (Episteme/Science)

This is knowledge of the universal (the Forms/Ideas). It also has two grades:

• 2.1 Discursive Reason (Dianoia): This gives us knowledge of mathematical objects, which are

Evolutionary Thought: From Origin to Modern Synthesis

The Human Desire to Know Origins

The desire to know where we come from and how we arrived at our current state is essential to understanding the origin of our species, according to established theories.

Fixism Contrasted with Evolution

Fixism, proposed by George Cuvier, posits that species are independent entities and have remained unchanged since their creation.

Conversely, Evolutionism suggests that the universe and life result from development. Species diversity arises from continuous changes and adjustments. While the foundations of evolutionism began in the eighteenth century, the theory solidified during the nineteenth century.

Lamarck's Theory of Evolution

Lamarck's theory rests on several... Continue reading "Understanding Evolutionary Theory: Fixism vs. Darwinism" »