Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Ethics: Duty vs. Happiness

Immanuel Kant was a renowned philosopher who significantly shifted philosophical thought, influencing many authors after him. This analysis reflects on his ethical duty compared with the ideas of earlier authors.

Kant's Categorical Imperative

Kant aimed to develop a unique ethical framework applicable universally, enabling the distinction between right and wrong in any situation. According to Kant, theoretical reason makes judgments against practical reason, which are mandatory. These form the pillars of ethics, devoid of empirical content because experience does not provide universal knowledge. These principles originate from our being a priori. Kant distinguishes between categorical and hypothetical imperatives. Categorical... Continue reading "Kant's Duty Ethics Versus Aristotle and Epicurus" »

Understanding Anthropological Dualism

3-Dualism Anthropological.

It consists of the separation of the human mind and body. The debate has been kept alive since ancient times until today, often referred to as the soul-body duality. Even Plato said that the body is the prison of the soul.

If we conform to peek at this issue only in its modern approach, we note that the conception of humanity becomes a major problem, especially with all those metaphysical conceptions that are based on a split reality into two radically different classes of substances:

The extent or physical substance, conceived from mathematics and entirely governed by the laws of mechanics.

The thought or psychic reality, conceived from logic and one which has no place in the book.... Continue reading "Understanding Anthropological Dualism: Mind and Body" »

Historical Context

Karl Marx emerged during the Industrial Revolution and the social struggles of the 19th century. He adopted the Hegelian view of history as a process of reality, affirmation, denial, and self-improvement. Marx asserted that the true subject of history is not the spirit but the flesh-and-blood human being who produces their own life and social existence through labor in relation to nature. Marx envisioned a classless society where individuals are truly free, masters of their own work and being. To achieve this, Marx analyzed capitalism, where private ownership dominates, and proposed a workers' revolution to establish an egalitarian society. He envisioned a community forming a classless society, moving beyond the class structures... Continue reading "Karl Marx's Philosophy: Class Struggle, Alienation, and Capitalism" »

Saint Augustine: Faith, Reason, and the Search for Truth

Born on November 13, 354, in Tagaste and died in 430, Saint Augustine believed that the full truth resides in Christianity. However, he acknowledged that before the rise of Christianity, philosophers also possessed some truths inspired by God. Saint Augustine, therefore, utilized some Greek concepts. In his thought, there is a significant influence of Platonism and Neoplatonism.

The Search for Truth

For Saint Augustine, there is no conflict between faith and reason; he considered them complementary. He criticized skepticism by asserting the necessary certainty of one's existence, stating that even if all our opinions were always wrong, we still exist. This implies that we also know because... Continue reading "Saint Augustine: Philosophy of Faith and Reason" »

Immanuel Kant: Synthesis and Influence

Kant is undoubtedly the greatest eighteenth-century German philosopher and one of the most enthusiastic proponents of the Enlightenment. From a strictly philosophical point of view, this included the daunting task of criticism that Kant undertook, subjecting theoretical reason and practical reason to rigorous scrutiny. As a result, he brought a dazzling synthesis of rationalism and empiricism concerning theoretical reason, and a new ethical theory, formalism, which broke with all previous approaches. As if this were not enough, Kant connects both forms of reason in the Critique of Judgment, which studies the nature and purpose of aesthetic judgments. Such contributions have exerted a considerable influence... Continue reading "Kant and Marx: Philosophical Legacies" »

Nietzsche's Theory of Moral Origins

Friedrich Nietzsche's theory posits that moral values originate from resentment, a reaction by the weak against the strong. Unable to create their own values, the weak deny the values of the noble, those capable of genuine creation. This resentment, rather than an inability to create, fuels the reactive process that gives rise to what Nietzsche terms "slave morality". It's not a lack of capacity, but a reactive force.

The Relevance of Nietzsche's Ideas Today

Nietzsche's text offers a valuable interpretation of our understanding of moral values. It prompts reflection on two key points:

• To what extent does theorizing about morality console us for our inability to live creatively in a world of changing values?

The Human Condition: Distinguishing Humanity

Humanity has always sought to differentiate itself from animals and the divine. Humans are unique, being neither purely animal nor divine. The shared similarities and relationship between animals and humans are evident, though it took centuries to clarify. In modern times, humanity has experienced three theoretical 'humiliations,' each rooted in scientific discovery and challenging religious dogmas.

Three Modern Humiliations of Humanity

• The Copernican Revolution

  The first: The Earth was shown not to be static, but revolving around the Sun.

• Darwin's Theory of Evolution

  The second: Darwin demonstrated that our species is merely one among all living beings, not divinely created, but evolved through mutations.

Humanity's Three Great Narcissistic Injuries

Sigmund Freud argues that society has navigated a process that has inflicted injuries upon its collective narcissism. The concept of narcissism, taking from the myth of Narcissus (a Greek character who fell in love with himself and ultimately died because of his own vanity), refers to self-love. This self-love is considered a necessary part of being human; it's like saying, "First, I must love myself, and then I can turn my love to others."

The individual needs a degree of narcissism, but this can lead to an extremely inflated ego, making any statement that questions its omnipotence intolerable. In this process, throughout human history, there have been three major injuries that painfully struck down... Continue reading "Humanity's Narcissistic Injuries: Copernicus, Darwin, Freud" »

Christianity's Influence

With Christianity came new ways of thinking.

Manichaeism

Manichaeism is a religious doctrine of salvation based on the philosophical idea that the world is divided into good and evil, light and dark, spirit and matter.

Augustine on Reason and Faith

Both reason and faith can lead to God; there is no contradiction between them. "Believe to understand, understand to believe."

Creation: Augustine vs. Greeks

St. Augustine held that God created the world out of nothing, while the Greeks believed the world has existed forever.

Augustine's View on Evil

Evil is the absence of God, something that is not, resulting from human disobedience to the will of God.

Rebirth

Rebirth was a cultural movement that originated in Italy in the late fourteenth... Continue reading "Christianity's Impact in the Middle Ages & Key Philosophies" »

Historical Context

René Descartes' life unfolded primarily in the first part of the 17th century. The 16th century witnessed the fragmentation of religious unity in Europe due to the Protestant Reformation, challenging the long-held ideal of a united Europe under the Christian faith.

Socio-politically, France, Holland, and England emerged as economic centers. Absolute monarchy spread across Europe. The Spanish bourgeoisie faced economic ruin, while nobility and clergy remained the primary landowners. England experienced two revolutions and a civil war. Europe engaged in colonial ventures driven by mercantilist principles. The growth of trade empowered the bourgeoisie, leading to the breakdown of the Ancien Régime. This era marked the height... Continue reading "Descartes: Life, Philosophy, and Comparison to Aristotle" »