Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Ethical Indeterminism

Indeterminism posits that when we choose and act freely, we act independently.

This trend's origins trace back to classical Greece, the ethical relativism of the Sophists, and Plato's moral intellectualism. It regained importance from the eighteenth century.

Kant

Kant believed in different uses of the same reason. Human reason has two main uses:

• Pure Reason deals with understanding the physical world, where phenomena are inescapable, and freedom doesn't exist.
• Practical Reason deals with how we should act, the principles of human behavior, and the laws guiding behavior. Freedom exists only here.

Kant focused on the principles that move humans to action. These principles form our conscience, which governs our behavior and tells... Continue reading "Ethical Theories: Determinism vs. Indeterminism" »

1. Define the word 'society'.

   Answer: A group of human beings who collectively pursue shared goals through common means and coexistence.

2. What is meant by 'politics'?

   Answer: Throughout human history, groups have been linked by fundamental political structures, inevitably involving the presence of law, from primitive forms to the modern state.

3. Describe what is meant by 'legal order'.

   Answer: Three constitutions regulate the basic progress of the Mexican state: the constitutions of 1824, 1857, and 1917. The current state is restructured based on the 1917 constitution and its reforms.

4. What is the purpose of state theory?

   Answer: It aims to investigate the specific circumstances of state life around us.

5. Name the first constitution that took effect in New

Comparison with Leibniz

René Descartes, considered the father of modern philosophy due to his immense influence on subsequent knowledge, employed a destructive method to arrive at truth. However, Leibniz offered a critique of Cartesian philosophy, attempting to resolve the dichotomy between res extensa (extended substance) and res cogitans (thinking substance) raised by Descartes.

Leibniz replaced the Cartesian mechanistic dynamism and substance with his concept of monads—simple, indivisible, and independent substances. These monads, as diverse as reality itself, possess an internal energy that contrasts with Cartesian mechanism. Independent and unrelated to the outside, each monad has its own principle of action, independent of the external... Continue reading "Leibniz's Critique of Cartesian Philosophy: A Comparative Analysis" »

Relationship between Kant, Descartes, and Hume

Kant's thought can be understood in relation to other philosophers, such as R. Descartes and D. Hume. A comparison between Descartes and Kant reveals key differences in their approaches to epistemology.

Descartes vs. Kant

Descartes, in his quest to understand knowledge, prioritized ideas meeting the criteria of clarity and distinction, effectively dismissing empirical data derived from the senses. He believed only mathematical and metaphysical truths met this standard. Descartes' method of doubt aimed to establish a foundational principle for all human knowledge, not solely mathematical knowledge.

Kant, with his central question, "What can I know?" (addressed in the *Critique of Pure Reason*), similarly... Continue reading "Kant, Descartes, and Hume: Comparative Philosophy" »

Plato and Aristotle: Understanding Their Metaphysical Differences

Similarities Between Plato and Aristotle

To understand the main differences, it is first necessary to know the similarities. Both Plato and Aristotle understood that reality is constituted by two basic principles, one active and one passive, or intellectual and material. The active ingredient is, in both authors, the essence of things.

• For Plato, the active principle is Ideas. The material world is sensitive, and things are what they are because they "participate in those ideas."
• For Aristotle, the active ingredient is the form, and the passive principle is matter. Consider an equestrian statue made of cast iron. Its shape is a horse with a leader on top; the material is cast iron.

The Foundation of Empiricism

David Hume is one of the leading philosophers of empiricism. He proposes a philosophy that considers something true only if it is based on experience or impressions. One important aspect that characterizes his thought is the negation of the Cartesian philosophy of res cogitans. He denies the res infinita and res extensa.

The Origin of Knowledge

As for the origin of knowledge, experience reduces all to sensitive evidence. For empiricists, experience is the fundamental concept of philosophy, as it differentiates what is true from what is not. No one can say that something is true if they have no experience of it. For this reason, Hume denies the validity of abstract ideas and distinguishes two types of ideas:

• Relationships

Mill argues that no individual or group should dictate another's life choices, even with good intentions. This stems from his belief that people's judgments are often clouded by prejudice, superstition, and self-interest. As J.S. Mill states in On Liberty, external power can only be legitimately exercised to prevent harm to others, not to improve an individual physically or morally.

This principle applies to individuals with mature faculties, capable of rational discussion. Mill champions freedom of thought, sentiment, expression, and the freedom to pursue one's own tastes and purposes, provided they do not harm others. He also defends the freedom of assembly and association.

Freedom of Thought and Expression

In On Freedom of Thought and Expression,... Continue reading "John Stuart Mill on Individual Liberty and Its Limits" »

Selection of Leaders

The selection of rulers is divided into the following stages:

1. Stage 1: Childhood to Age 20

   Children are raised apart from their parents to minimize the influence of undesirable habits. Those not selected for leadership by age 20 join the artisan class. During this stage, education focuses on arithmetic, geometry, gymnastics, and observing war.

2. Stage 2: Age 20 to 30

   Studies include arithmetic, plane and solid geometry, astronomy, and harmony. Those who excel advance to Stage 3 and begin studying dialectic.

3. Stage 3: Age 30 to 35

   Students delve into ascending dialectic. Mastery without reliance on the senses is required to proceed to the next stage.

4. Stage 4: Age 35 to 50

   This stage involves descending dialectic, applying learned

On Reality (Physical and Metaphysical)

Let's examine the contrasting views of Plato and Aristotle on reality, being, and causality.

Indicators of Reality

For Plato, reality resides in the realm of Ideas (universals). These Ideas are transcendent, existing separately from the empirical world. They possess a strong ontological status, captured through dialectic. In contrast, Aristotle emphasized primary substance (specific things). He saw form as immanent to matter, inextricably linked to it. While he acknowledged an extra-mental reality captured by understanding and expressed in language, it wasn't independent of matter (moderate ontologism).

The Nature of Being

Plato's concept of Being mirrors Parmenides' attributes, now ascribed to Ideas: unity,... Continue reading "Plato and Aristotle: Reality, Being, and Causality" »

The General Principle of Contradiction

Two contradictory statements cannot both be true. In the legal principle, two conflicting legal norms may not both be valid.

Logic

It is the science of thinking, that is, studying the structures of thought.

Divisions of Logic

• Formal Logic: ("minor logic") The formal study of science; it teaches the rules necessary for correct reasoning.
• Material Logic: ("major logic") Examines the material conditions of science and discusses or addresses reasoning based on the principles on which it depends.

Principle of Identity: In every true judgment, the subject concept is identical to the predicate concept.

Principle of Contradiction: Two contradictory judgments cannot be true at the same time and under the same aspect.

Principle