Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Philosophy and ethics

Overview

Nietzsche's philosophy is a critique of the entire Western philosophical tradition, including the values promoted by Christianity and the Enlightenment. His work opened new directions in contemporary thought by challenging the emphasis on reason and rationality.

Critique of Reason and Embrace of Irrationalism

Modern philosophy initially sought a method centered on reason. However, Nietzsche criticized this approach, denouncing the limitations of reason and advocating for a shift towards irrationalism in two ways:

• Negative Slope: A critique of religion, morality, and Western culture.
• Positive Slope: An attempt to understand and explain life as driven by the "will to power."

Key Themes in Nietzsche's Philosophy

Nietzsche's philosophy explores... Continue reading "Nietzsche's Philosophy: A Critique of Tradition" »

Kant's Philosophy

Theoretical Reason

Kant supports the French Revolution and trusts in reason. Pure reason has two uses: theoretical and practical. Theoretically, Kant questions if metaphysics is a science, like math and physics, which derive from pure reason. He uses a Copernican shift, imposing laws on objects for scientific progress. This explains a priori knowledge (universal and necessary) in science. Scientific knowledge should have material and formal elements, expressed in judgments. Scientific judgment must facilitate progress and be a priori.

Transcendental Aesthetics

Perceptual knowledge from external reality is arranged in space and time by a priori forms of sensibility. This perception is necessary for the next step: knowing.

Transcendental

Item 1: The Scientific Method

Scientific Work

• Asking Questions: Asking relevant questions about natural phenomena is crucial for scientific progress. While ambitious questions are important, focusing on more manageable questions can often lead to more concrete and useful answers.
• Formulating Hypotheses: A hypothesis is a proposed explanation for a natural phenomenon. It's typically based on observations, existing ideas, or beliefs.
• Testing Hypotheses: Scientific hypotheses must be testable. This involves designing experiments and gathering data to determine whether the hypothesis is supported or refuted. This process can lead to the development of scientific theories.
• Formulating Theories: Scientific theories are general explanations for a wide

Mutual Agreements: Consumer Loans

First Part:

The Mutual: Consumer loan (free)

Subjects:

• Mutuante: Who delivers the thing
• Borrower, who accepts and agrees to rollback.

Subject Matter:

Stuff Supplies: money, cereals.

Cause:

Delivery of the thing

Actions:

For the return of the thing: actions of the law.

If it was wheat: Trigari action

If it was money: Credit money action.

Maritime loans: A person pays a shipowner money to take a commodity, money should reach port. The money was to buy merchandise.

Respond by: Pay guilt, deceit and assumes the risk of unforeseeable circumstances.

Muto would argue: borrowed money to invest and be repaid with interest, loan for use (free).

Loaning Agreements

Subjects:

• Lender: Who delivers the thing
• Borrower: who accepts and agrees

Plato's Theory of Ideas

Plato sought to understand the true nature of reality by identifying immutable principles, which he termed "Ideas." He observed that while the world is full of good things, we can only recognize them through the pre-existing concept of "Goodness" itself. Plato conceived of these Ideas as fundamental realities from which tangible things derive their essence. When we perceive something as beautiful, it is because it participates in the Idea of Beauty. Its beauty fades when it no longer embodies this Idea, but the Idea itself remains, allowing for the reappearance of beautiful things. These Ideas reside in the World of Ideas.

The World of Ideas and the Sensible World

Plato argued for the necessity of an ideal world containing... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Ideas: Unveiling the Intelligible World" »

1.1 Human Nature

The set of characteristics and properties shared by all humans. These traits identify us as a species, distinguishing us from the rest. It is our biological heritage.

1.2 Culture

A group of inventions produced by human intelligence, including language, clothing, and cuisine. It is our heritage. Human beings are a combination of nature and culture in which we live.

1.3 Ethics

A set of reflections on the goodness or badness of our conduct, on human behavior, and how behavior should be.

2.1 Human Intelligence

The ability to manage behavior effectively, using information to solve new problems. This includes:

• Conduct and behavior: Controlling how we care, learn, or desire.
• Helping us to choose the right goal and act effectively.

It raises... Continue reading "Understanding Human Nature, Culture, and Ethics" »

The Tree of Knowledge: A Story of Frustration

The Tree of Knowledge is the story of a frustration. Andrés Hurtado, its protagonist, seeks an explanation for an absurd and unjust reality. It is not mere intellectual curiosity that drives him, but the need to obtain some "practical truths" with which to conduct himself in life.

Reason vs. Life: An Irreconcilable Struggle

The attempt fails because the approach is too radical; reason and life are seen as irreconcilable principles. In the struggle between the tree of knowledge and the tree of life, Andrés will give in to the latter, which shows itself to be strong and indomitable. Life, as a "blind force" that is opposed to reason, is a "turbulent flow" which carries the individual with its impetus,... Continue reading "Pío Baroja's The Tree of Knowledge: A Critical Analysis" »

Item 1: What is Man?

Biologically, man is an animal by nature. Culturally, man is a social being. Animals and humans—man is able to create and transmit culture through human language.

Intelligence

Being aware of reality is the ability to direct our behavior to deal successfully with new situations and relate to the environment. So-called emotional intelligence is the ability to deal with our moods, feelings, and emotions and relate positively and effectively with things and with others. Since we live not alone but in partnership, in addition to the intelligence that is proper to each person, we can distinguish social intelligence.

Good Conditions for Human Development

• Dignity implies having minimal material and social conditions that allow the

Defining Reality: Material and Spiritual

Philosophers distinguish two types of reality: material and immaterial (or spiritual). The relationships proposed between them include:

1. Exclusion: The existence of one kind excludes the existence of the other (characteristic of metaphysical materialism or spiritualism).
2. Coexistence: They may interact, but interaction is considered very difficult as they are radically different.
3. Basis: One reality serves as the foundation or basis upon which the other is built.

Plato and Aristotle: Foundational Views

It is sometimes argued that Plato resolved fundamental philosophical issues, with later philosophers primarily commenting, nuancing, and explaining his work. Aristotle (often associated with a more material perspective)... Continue reading "Matter vs. Spirit: Philosophical Perspectives on Reality" »

Hobbes: Justification of the Absolute State

Hobbes's political and moral philosophy presents the state of nature as pre-moral. Morality is generated by the social contract, serving as a tool to ensure the security and peace necessary for each individual's complete freedom. Absolute political power and morality are at the service of the individual. Political power lacks limits, while morality is minimal. The state is an institution separate from the individual, a rationally accepted means of achieving security and peace. The state, however, absorbs the individual.

To achieve security and overcome the dangers of the state of nature, individuals cede their rights to a third party, a sovereign. The sovereign state emerges as the unique source of... Continue reading "Hobbes and Spinoza: Political Philosophy Compared" »