Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Truth as Correspondence

The theory of truth as correspondence rests on two assumptions: first, that there is a reality independent of thought, and second, that this reality can be known. This aligns with empiricist and realistic theories of knowledge.

Aristotle and St. Thomas Aquinas held this view, stating that truth is the correspondence between the intellect and the thing. Russell later refined this theory, proposing an isomorphism between reality and thought. Tarski emphasized the mediating role of language in the process of knowledge.

Truth as Coherence

Theories of truth as coherence are favored by rationalistic or idealistic thinkers like Spinoza, Leibniz, and Hegel. These theories operate at a linguistic level, focusing on the relationships... Continue reading "Understanding Different Perspectives on Truth" »

Types of Argumentative Support

• Facts and Figures: Information based on provable facts or statistics. For example, Peter said that pollution causes disease because polluted cities have increased respiratory diseases.
• Causal Relationships: Information that functions as a cause and effect. For instance, excessive alcohol consumption can cause liver damage.
• Definitions: Supporting a thesis by using a specific definition.
• Comparisons: Organizing information by similarities and differences to support a thesis.
• Description: A thesis based on a detailed description.
• Narratives: Using a narrative to support a thesis.
• Authority: Using the name of an authority or the prestige of an institution to support a thesis.
• Value: Referring to specific values to defend

Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Development

Pre-conventional Morality

At this level, there is no understanding of social rules. Moral questions are considered only from a personal perspective.

Conventional Morality

Judgments are made based on the rules and expectations of the individual's social group. Moral issues are addressed to maintain membership within the group.

Post-conventional Morality

Individuals understand societal rules but are not limited by them. Thought is governed by principles and values accepted because they are based on general principles. Moral reasoning involves:

• Defining what is good.
• Using reasons to defend the perception of good.

Kohlberg's Moral Education

The goal is to maximize the capacity for moral judgment development through:... Continue reading "Understanding Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development" »

Saint Augustine of Hippo (354–430)

Born in 354, Saint Augustine spent his youth in Algeria. Educated with Christian beliefs, he soon changed his allegiance to Manichaeism, which posits that two poles (good and evil) are constantly struggling. Eventually, he abandoned Manichaeism and joined Neoplatonism. He converted to Christianity in 387 and later became the Bishop of Hippo.

Augustine's Theological and Political Contributions

Augustine worked extensively against church schisms, notably intervening against Donatism and Pelagianism (which argued that good practice alone is sufficient for salvation). His major work is The City of God. He died in 430, shortly before the traditional date for the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476).

The Pursuit

From Myth to Reason: Foundations of Western Philosophy

Mythical Thinking and Its Categories

Mythical thinking attempts to provide answers based on superstition, legend, magic, belief, and chance. We can categorize different types of mythology:

• Cosmogonic: Relates the origin of the universe and the world.
• Anthropogenic: Details the creation of humankind.
• Historical: Relates the origin of a culture or civilization.
• Eschatological: Tells what lies beyond death.

Rational Thought

Rational thought is based on logic. It replaced arbitrary mythological necessity with rational necessity based on laws. This is founded on the conviction that events are governed by natural laws, allowing everything to operate within a rational order.

The Socratic Era and Classical

Staff Compensation

Internal Equity: is achieved through internal information obtained through the evaluation and classification of position, based on a previous program description and analysis of the position.

External Balance: is achieved through external information obtained during the investigation of wages.

Compensation Principles

With this information (internal and external), the organization defines a wage policy to standardize the procedures for determining staff remuneration:

1. Reward each employee according to the value of their position.
2. Adequately reward them for their performance and dedication.
3. Attract and retain the best candidates for the offices.
4. Increase the flexibility of the organization, giving staff mobility and the possibility

Kant's Copernican Revolution in Philosophy

The **Copernican Revolution** is Kant's philosophical proposal to understand how **synthetic a priori knowledge** is possible, fundamentally changing the role of the subject in relation to the *a priori* conditions of knowledge.

Kant explains his philosophy using an analogy with the astronomical revolution initiated by Copernicus. Copernicus realized that celestial movement could not be understood under the theory that the Earth was the center of the universe, with the Sun and other celestial objects revolving around it. He finally understood that the Sun is at the center and the Earth revolves around it.

The central problem in philosophy, according to Kant, is explaining synthetic a priori knowledge.... Continue reading "Kant's Core Philosophical Concepts: Revolution, Illusion, and Imperatives" »

Thomas Aquinas: Faith, Reason, and God

Philosophical Approach

Thomas Aquinas, a great scholar and teacher, dedicated his life to teaching and writing. A primary question throughout his work is the relationship between faith and reason. Aquinas sought a balance and reconciliation between the two, based on these principles:

• Clear distinction between reason and faith: Reason is a natural human faculty; faith is a supernatural gift from divine grace.
• Reason cannot contradict revealed truth: If reasoning conflicts with revealed truth, the reasoning is false by definition.
• Three kinds of truths: Truths of natural reason, preambles of faith, and revealed truths.

Aquinas stressed the importance of natural law and reserved a significant place for Aristotelianism.... Continue reading "Thomas Aquinas and William of Ockham: Faith, Reason, and the Existence of God" »

Relations Between Reason and Faith

Saint Thomas Aquinas argued for the unity of truth, asserting that both reason (derived from sensory data) and faith (based on divine revelation) offer independent paths to understanding. While truths of faith are accepted without question, truths of reason (philosophy) can be explored through human intellect. Some truths of faith can be demonstrated rationally, such as the preambles of faith. Reason, faith, and theology converge, with theology illuminating natural theological truths. Philosophy and reason are erroneous only when their conclusions contradict faith.

Demonstration of the Existence of God

While accepting God's existence as revealed by faith, Aquinas offered five proofs based on sensory experience:... Continue reading "Saint Thomas Aquinas: Philosophy, Theology, and Existence of God" »