Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Understanding Adverbial Clauses

Clauses of Time

They are often introduced by subordinators such as after, before, since, until, when, while, as soon as, and once.

Example: When I first met you, you were still studying.

Clauses of Place

They are introduced by where or wherever.

Example: They always went for their holidays wherever they could afford to go.

Clauses of Condition and Concession

This category includes two related types:

• Conditional Clauses: These express the dependence of one set of circumstances on another.

Example: If you are late, I will have gone away.

Concessive Clauses: These imply a contrast between two circumstances; the main clause is surprising in light of the subordinate one.

Example: Although I was late, she waited for me.

Specific

... Continue reading "Mastering Adverbial Clauses: Types, Subordinators, and Usage" »

OECD Corporate Governance Principles

Contemporary discussions of corporate governance tend to refer to principles raised in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) reports.

• Rights and Equitable Treatment of Shareholders

  Organizations should respect the rights of shareholders and help shareholders to exercise those rights. They can help shareholders exercise their rights by openly and effectively communicating information and by encouraging shareholders to participate in general meetings.

• Interests of Other Stakeholders

  Organizations should recognize that they have legal, contractual, social, and market-driven obligations to non-shareholder stakeholders, including employees, investors, creditors, suppliers, local communities,

... Continue reading "Corporate Governance Principles: OECD and Core" »

The Enlightenment: Ideas and Impact

The Enlightenment fostered a critical attitude among the intelligentsia and promoted the advancement of literacy among the population. This era saw significant societal shifts, including educational reforms and a surge in published works.

Educational and Literary Advancements

• Prussia introduced the world's first primary education system for boys and girls.
• In England, book publications dramatically increased from 21,000 in 1710 to 65,000 in 1790. Religious content was increasingly replaced by works of science, arts, philosophy, and literature.

Key Enlightenment Philosophers

While these achievements were significant, some Enlightenment thinkers believed they were insufficient, leading to radical critiques of the... Continue reading "Enlightenment Thinkers & Reformation's Impact on Society" »

Identifying Common Logical Fallacies

Fallacy	Trigger Phrase	Meaning
Slippery Slope	“If we allow X, chaos will follow”	One small step inevitably leads to extreme, negative consequences.
Middle Ground (Argument to Moderation)	“Both are wrong/right a little”	Assumes the truth is always found exactly in between two opposing positions.
False Cause (Post Hoc)	“A caused B just because it came first”	Assumes a causal relationship without sufficient evidence, based only on sequence.
Anecdotal	“It happened to me!”	Uses a personal story or isolated example instead of robust evidence or statistics.
Burden of Proof	“Prove me wrong”	Asserts a claim is true until the opponent proves it false.
Apples & Oranges (False Equivalence)	“Why change X? We don’t

... Continue reading "Essential Academic Writing and Research Skills Toolkit" »

Job Interview Vocabulary

Interview: A conversation between a job applicant and an employer to assess the applicant's qualifications and decide on hiring.

Skills: Abilities or experience that enhance a person's capacity to complete a given task.

Salary Expectations: Also known as compensation expectations, this is the amount of money an employee anticipates earning for performing a specific job.

Long-Term Goals: Objectives you aim to accomplish in the future, requiring time and planning.

Strengths: Tasks or actions you perform well, including skills, proficiencies, and talents.

Weaknesses: A lack of strength in a specific field or task.

Full-Time Job: A job typically involving 40 hours of work per week, usually eight hours a day, five days a week.

Part-

... Continue reading "Job Interview Vocabulary and Grammar Essentials" »

Hume's Science of Man: Foundation and Purpose

David Hume defends the dependence of all sciences on the science of man, or the science of human nature. It is man who comprehends these sciences, which are his own creation, and it is man who must be studied. This Science of Man aims to guide society toward a world free of prejudice and religious bigotry, moving away from ancient and superstitious beliefs.

Critique of Superstition and Metaphysics

Hume, a profound rationalist, believes that rationalist superstition and metaphysics form the ideological basis of societal shortcomings. Religious intolerance, hypocrisy, and malice impede the progress, culture, and welfare of society. The Science of Man, Hume argues, intends to liberate humanity and dismantle... Continue reading "David Hume's Philosophy: Empiricism, Reason, and Human Nature" »

Principles of Logic

Principle of Identity

An object is the same as itself: A is A → A = A.

Principle of Contradiction

Nothing can both be and not be in the same sense at the same time. Contradictory statements cannot both be true: Nothing can be A and not A → ¬(A ∧ ¬A).

Principle of Excluded Middle

Everything must either be or not be. Every statement must be either true or false: Everything is A or not A → A ∨ ¬A.

Logical Paradoxes, Fallacies, and Invalid Arguments

Consider the statement: "This statement is false." This proposition creates a paradox. If we assume it's true, then its content declares it false. Conversely, if we assume it's false, then its content implies it's true. This self-contradictory statement challenges basic logical... Continue reading "Fundamentals of Logic: Principles and Applications" »

Imperialist Reason: Bourdieu & Wacquant's Critique

Note on notation: ≠ means 'is/are not'; = means 'is/are' or 'means'.

Understanding Cultural Imperialism

• Cultural imperialism rests on the power to universalize particularisms linked to a historical tradition. Indeed, nothing is more universal than the pretension to the universal, or more accurately, to the universalization of a particular vision of the world.
• The central focus of this text is **universalization** across philosophical, sociological, historical, and political dimensions.
• This universalization, reinforced by media repetition and broadcast, progressively transforms specific facts into universal common sense.
• Cultural imperialism, whether American or otherwise, imposes itself most

... Continue reading "Imperialist Reason: Bourdieu & Wacquant's Critique of Universalization" »

Core Bioethical Principles

Moral Progress and Scientific Advancement

There is no possible scientific progress without moral progress too.

The Unity of the Human Person

Each human being is a biological, spiritual, and moral unity. What truly differentiates persons from other living beings is our capacity to behave morally.

Primacy of Human Life

The Belmont Report outlines general bioethical principles. A key principle is the primacy of present and real human life above any other interest or value. This also implies the respect for human dignity.

Understanding Human Dignity

The origin and foundation of the duty of absolute respect for human life are to be found in the dignity proper to the person, and not simply in the natural inclination to preserve... Continue reading "Bioethical Foundations: Human Life, Dignity, and Legal Status" »

Anthropological Ideas of the Holy Fathers (Platonism) - Until the 13th Century

These ideas persisted until the 13th century due to:

• The idea that the soul is in the body due to a fall (original sin)
• The idea that the soul, in the body, is subjected to superior and inferior tendencies (battle between the flesh and the spirit)
• Immortality of the soul

Saint Thomas Aquinas (Aristotelian Standpoint)

• The soul is the form of the body.
• The soul does not pre-exist the body; it is created by God at the same time it in-forms the body.
• No transmigration.
• Immortal soul.

Descartes (Plato's Standpoint - Efficient Causality)

Descartes' views aligned with Plato's because:

• He rejects the concept of substantial forms.
• He considers the soul to be a thinking and self-sufficient

... Continue reading "Philosophical Perspectives on the Soul and Life" »