Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Defining the Security Dilemma

The Security Dilemma is a situation where the increase in one state’s security (e.g., military strength) leads other states to fear for their own security. Consequently, it can lead to an escalation of tension (war/conflict) involving one or more parties, producing an outcome which no party truly desires.

Butterfield: Fear as the Ultimate Source

Herbert Butterfield argued that “the greatest war of history can be produced without the intervention of criminals; it could be produced between two powers.” He mentioned several propositions:

• The ultimate source is fear leading states to protect themselves, deriving from the “universal sin of humanity.”
• It requires uncertainty over others' intentions.
• Its origin is

Doxa: In Plato's theory of knowledge, doxa is the lowest level of knowledge. Through the five senses, we obtain information about the Physical World in which we live. Episteme: In Plato's theory of knowledge, episteme is the highest level of knowledge. Through the faculty of reason, we gain knowledge of the Forms in the World of Forms. Allegory of the Cave: A metaphor used by Plato to explain how, through knowledge and education, we can escape the Physical World and reach the World of Forms.

Aristotle's Knowledge

Sensory knowledge (Aristotle): Through the knowledge provided by the five senses, we understand the accidental characteristics of beings: position, colour, weight, etc. These characteristics are related to matter (hyle). Rational knowledge

OECD Corporate Governance Principles

Contemporary discussions of corporate governance tend to refer to principles raised in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) reports.

• Rights and Equitable Treatment of Shareholders

  Organizations should respect the rights of shareholders and help shareholders to exercise those rights. They can help shareholders exercise their rights by openly and effectively communicating information and by encouraging shareholders to participate in general meetings.

• Interests of Other Stakeholders

  Organizations should recognize that they have legal, contractual, social, and market-driven obligations to non-shareholder stakeholders, including employees, investors, creditors, suppliers, local communities,

The Enlightenment: Ideas and Impact

The Enlightenment fostered a critical attitude among the intelligentsia and promoted the advancement of literacy among the population. This era saw significant societal shifts, including educational reforms and a surge in published works.

Educational and Literary Advancements

• Prussia introduced the world's first primary education system for boys and girls.
• In England, book publications dramatically increased from 21,000 in 1710 to 65,000 in 1790. Religious content was increasingly replaced by works of science, arts, philosophy, and literature.

Key Enlightenment Philosophers

While these achievements were significant, some Enlightenment thinkers believed they were insufficient, leading to radical critiques of the... Continue reading "Enlightenment Thinkers & Reformation's Impact on Society" »

Definition:

a) Nominal:

• Etymological: "philosophy" "love of wisdom".
• Homer (Sophia): ability, skill or technique
• Herodotus (Sophos): anyone who outstands because of the perfection and quality of his works
• Heraclitus (Philosophus): a philosopher is a good researcher of many things
• Pythagoras: disinterested effort that leads to the quest for knowledge
• Plato: Philosophy is a participation of Wisdom. It's a tendency.

Synonymic:

• Stoicism: philosopher is the calm, patient person, who never loses control
• Scholasticism: philosophy is the supreme human natural science
• Positivism: philosophy is reflection with no foundations

b) Real:

"Science of all things through ultimate causes, attained by the light of natural reason alone".

B. Formal object (point of view)

a. Infra

Principles of Logic

Principle of Identity

An object is the same as itself: A is A → A = A.

Principle of Contradiction

Nothing can both be and not be in the same sense at the same time. Contradictory statements cannot both be true: Nothing can be A and not A → ¬(A ∧ ¬A).

Principle of Excluded Middle

Everything must either be or not be. Every statement must be either true or false: Everything is A or not A → A ∨ ¬A.

Logical Paradoxes, Fallacies, and Invalid Arguments

Consider the statement: "This statement is false." This proposition creates a paradox. If we assume it's true, then its content declares it false. Conversely, if we assume it's false, then its content implies it's true. This self-contradictory statement challenges basic logical... Continue reading "Fundamentals of Logic: Principles and Applications" »

Anthropological Ideas of the Holy Fathers (Platonism) - Until the 13th Century

These ideas persisted until the 13th century due to:

• The idea that the soul is in the body due to a fall (original sin)
• The idea that the soul, in the body, is subjected to superior and inferior tendencies (battle between the flesh and the spirit)
• Immortality of the soul

Saint Thomas Aquinas (Aristotelian Standpoint)

• The soul is the form of the body.
• The soul does not pre-exist the body; it is created by God at the same time it in-forms the body.
• No transmigration.
• Immortal soul.

Descartes (Plato's Standpoint - Efficient Causality)

Descartes' views aligned with Plato's because:

• He rejects the concept of substantial forms.
• He considers the soul to be a thinking and self-sufficient

Question 1: Greatness of the Soul

Aristotle's Perspective

Aristotle defines greatness of the soul as moral perfection, encompassing virtues like courage, temperance, wisdom, generosity, strength, and justice. He believes that a virtuous person, incapable of pride, would sacrifice their assets for honor. Achieving greatness of the soul, for Aristotle, is the ultimate path to happiness.

Conflicting Views: Augustine and Hobbes

St. Augustine disagrees, arguing that Aristotle's view promotes self-glory rather than adherence to God's word. Augustine emphasizes the cardinal virtues but stresses the importance of praising God for salvation. Hobbes also diverges from Aristotle, asserting that happiness is not an end in itself but a means to another... Continue reading "Aristotle vs. Aquinas & Hobbes: Views on Virtue, Happiness, and the Soul" »

Ethics as a Whole: A Moral Reasoning: Formula

Moral principle + Action = Moral value. Applying a moral principle to an action we are able to come up with moral evolution Issues. There can be 3 problems with moral reasoning: 1. Consistency 2. Lack of facts 3. Sources of moral principles. Moral principle= Killing innocent people is evil. Action= Billy killed an innocent person. Value= Billy is an evil person. Objective — Universal— Always time. Subjective — Particular—Time-Space. Moral Relativism General Characteristic — The belief that moral principles are values created by each culture's customs and conventions. No objective moral values. Moral relativism can lack consistency as it can be based on your opinion and change with every... Continue reading "Understanding Moral Reasoning and Ethical Principles" »