Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

Philosophical Views on the Soul

Plato established a dualism between the sensible world and the world of ideas, which results in a dualism between body and soul in anthropology. For Plato, man is a spiritual and eternal soul locked within a body. The authentic and genuine self of man is the soul, destined for wisdom. Body and soul are two heterogeneous realities. The body is of a material nature and belongs to the world of the senses, while the soul is spiritual and belongs to the intelligible world. The soul's natural place is the intelligible world, not close to the body.

For Plato, the soul has three distinct parts:

• The rational soul: Immortal, intelligent, and of divine nature. It is the most noble and high, as its business is to know intellectually

Aquinas on the Existence of God

The Summa Theologica is a highly influential work in theology and Christian doctrine. It is divided into three parts: the first part, "On God"; the second, covering ethical and moral issues; and the third, dedicated to the study of Christ.

The Problem of God's Existence

The question of God's existence is framed within the structure of reality. God is real, as are creatures, but God's being and existence are not derived from anything or anyone. Creatures, however, derive their being and existence from God. Created beings are contingent; they exist, but their existence is not necessary. God, on the other hand, necessarily exists.

This distinction highlights the difference between essence and existence. Created things... Continue reading "Aquinas' Proofs: The Existence of God Through Five Ways" »

New Christianity Characteristics

New Christianity encompasses several key characteristics:

• Monotheism: Belief in one God.
• Creationism: The belief that God created everything from nothing.
• Timeline: Placing events within a historical context.
• Truth: Holding onto fundamental truths.
• Man: Created in God's image.

The Ethics of Epicurus

Epicurean ethics focuses on material well-being, defining good and evil based on their ability to achieve happiness. Pleasure is central to human nature, experienced as the absence of pain in both body and soul. Epicurus identifies three types of pleasure:

• Natural and necessary (e.g., food, rest)
• Natural but not necessary (seeking greater satisfaction)
• Neither natural nor necessary (e.g., wealth, honor)

To avoid pain and suffering,... Continue reading "New Christianity Characteristics: Monotheism, Ethics, and Knowledge" »

St. Augustine's Philosophy

Epistemology (Theory of Knowledge)

Humans possess an innate inclination towards wisdom and true happiness. The certainty of one's existence is a knowledge the soul experiences directly. Beyond skeptical doubt, different levels of knowledge emerge:

• Sensitive Knowledge: Uncertain and susceptible to change and error.
• Rational Knowledge: Based on intangible, universal, and eternal models.
• Contemplation of Ideas: Wisdom is attainable only through divine illumination; the power of knowledge is not independent of divinity.

The Existence and Nature of God

Several arguments support God's existence:

• God's Effects: The order, beauty, and movement of the world reveal God.
• Universal Consent: A belief in a being superior to all things

Sanitation Eviction (1461, 1474)

The seller is liable for eviction (deprivation of the property based on a prior right). This occurs when the buyer is deprived of ownership because a third party demonstrates a superior, pre-existing right to the property.

Requirements:

• The buyer must experience demonstrable harm and final, irreversible deprivation.
• The deprivation must be based on a right established before the purchase.
• The eviction must be irreversible, judicially enforced, and total or partial (1475-1480).
• The seller must be notified of the eviction lawsuit within the legal timeframe. Eviction liability is presumed (1478).

Effects:

• Refund of the price at the time of eviction.
• Payment of proceeds or revenue, if awarded in court.
• Reimbursement for

Relations of Ideas and Matters of Fact: Our mental contents are reduced to impressions and ideas, which form the basis of our thought experiments.

1. Relations of ideas: These establish relationships between ideas and concepts. Their truth depends not on experience, but on the meaning of the terms. Relations of ideas are universal and necessary statements; their negation is contradictory and absurd.
2. Matters of fact: These establish relationships among facts that must be verified through observation and experience. These claims are contingent; their negation is possible. Matters of fact often refer to the future. Relations of ideas and matters of fact are the only two types of propositions that can provide knowledge.

Critique of Metaphysics: Hume... Continue reading "Hume's Empiricism: Relations of Ideas, Matters of Fact, and Critique of Metaphysics" »

Understanding Moral Duty and Its Implications

When we use words like "good" or "bad," their meaning can vary significantly depending on the context, particularly between non-moral and moral senses.

The Relative vs. Absolute Sense of 'Good' and 'Bad'

Non-Moral, Relative Sense

In a non-moral sense, "good" or "bad" (or what "you have to do") is relative. It depends on, or is connected to, something else. For example, "This is a good knife for cutting bread."

Moral, Absolute Sense

Conversely, when we use these words in a moral sense, their meaning is absolute. You must do something, or something is good or bad, regardless of whether you like it or not, or whether you want to. It simply is.

Moral Judgments and Absolute Obligations

When these words are used... Continue reading "Ethical Principles: Duty, Goodness, and Social Sanctions" »

Immanuel Kant's Ethics of Duty: Dual Character and Moral Law

The Dual Nature of Man: Empirical vs. Intelligible

Man possesses a dual character: empirical and intelligible. Regarding the former, man is a body, like so many others in the universe, subject to the natural regularities related to any other body. We say that man is an empirical determination because he is a body and because he desires what the body wants. Theoretical reason can explain the causes and effects of nature.

Empirical inclinations in the case of man can be detected, evaluated, enabled, and selected, but they can never be canceled. There is not only a causality of nature (a coincidence of course), but also a causality of freedom. We only understand what we are if we consider... Continue reading "Kantian Morality: Duty, Goodwill, and the Categorical Imperative" »

Machiavelli (1469-1527)

It is a Renaissance man as having a Renaissance mentality.

Works: "The Prince", "Discourses on Livy's first decade."

Political circumstances of his day, begin to form the first national States: France, Castile, England, but Italy (divided into several kingdoms and republics). Machiavelli seek independence and the city of Italy and expel the barbarians, but to no avail.

Major political ideas has brought us:

Notion of state, sovereign political organization of territory. However confused the figure of the prince of the state.

Empiricism: A method of work based on facts,

Reason of State: the state pursues its own ends (retained and expanded) so policy is independent of any other purposes. The policy is governed by the... Continue reading "Law 19983 on" »

Criteria for Recognizing Truth

The Role of Evidence

The term evidence comes from the Latin videre (to see) and refers to the particular forms of presentation that certain facts and propositions possess, making them appear obvious. Knowledge is evident when it produces certainty. However, there is no 100% satisfactory criterion, as the sense of certainty can be somewhat subjective.

Intersubjectivity in Truth Recognition

Intersubjectivity is based on the idea that knowledge is objective, shared by all, and not exclusive to a particular person. Compared to evidence, intersubjectivity has the advantage that the recognition of truth is not made by one person but by several. Truth is not something private but requires the consensus of the scientific... Continue reading "Philosophical Approaches to Truth and Knowledge" »