Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Philosophy and ethics

How to Evaluate the Consequences of an Act?

Only by the amount of happiness or "the opposite of happiness" they produce. Mill clarified that the consequences have not been evaluated with respect to an act but respect for the rule in which this event is significant.

Who Does Utilitarianism Affect?

In principle, all beings capable of suffering (and that includes non-human animals) are subject to morality according to utilitarianism. This includes a consideration of equal rights for everyone, sometimes described as a principle of impartiality.

What is "Fair"?

Impartiality means the happiness of each person involved in a truly moral decision counts equally. In other words, "everyone goes for one and only one." According to Mill: "The happiness which... Continue reading "Utilitarianism: Happiness, Impartiality, and Equality" »

Epistemology: Understanding Knowledge, Truth, and Reality

Epistemology is in charge of analyzing knowledge, determining its source and limits. From the 17th century, it acquired importance for two reasons: the importance of natural sciences, and because before beginning an investigation, we must know if we can reach the end.

Distinguishing Belief, Opinion, and Knowledge

• Opinion: We are not sure, nor can we prove it.
• Belief:
  • Uncertainty: We are not really sure of what we affirm.
  • Assertive: We are sure of something, but we cannot prove it.
• Knowledge: A belief of which we are confident and can prove.

Types of Knowledge

• Theoretical Knowledge: Formed by information describing the world. It arises from the desire to know. It consists of:
  • Describing and verifying

Here's a list of English vocabulary words, phrases, and expressions with their definitions:

Vocabulary Definitions

• Annoyed: Annoyed, angry.
• Appreciate: Look with favor.
• Approach: Approach.
• Avoid: Avoid.
• Allow: Permit.
• As long as: Provided.
• Beg: Ask.
• Boarding school: Boarding school.
• Burst into tears: Breaking to mourn.
• Change for the better: Change for the better.
• Collapse: Derrumbamiento.
• Complicated: Complicated.
• Confident: Confidant.
• Cope with: Power.
• Crowded: Crowded.
• Dare: Challenging.
• Doubt: Doubt.
• Deal: Treatment.
• Disapproval: Disapproval.
• Disturb: Disturb.
• Forbidden: Forbidden.
• Gather: Gather.
• Go too far: Go that far.
• Goal: Objective.
• Graceful: Elegant.
• Hardly: Hard.
• Hesitate: Hesitation.
• Ignore: Ignore.
• Interrupt: Interrupt.
• Knock over: Run over.
• Matter: Matter.
• Miss:

Plato's Theory of Ideas

The Theory of Ideas is the foundational element of Platonic philosophy. In essence, it defends the existence of the absolute, which stands in opposition to the corporeal, mortal, and relative world.

Unlike personal thought, the absolute that Plato refers to is impersonal. Plato maintained that reality is divided into two main realms: the Sensible World and the Intelligible World, or World of Ideas. The absolute he refers to is precisely that realm of reality. The Sensible World is the set of entities accessible to the senses—realities that are changing, multiple, born, and die—and are captured through the senses. The Intelligible World, or World of Ideas, is populated by entities that are absolute, universal, independent,... Continue reading "Plato's Theory of Ideas: Understanding the Absolute" »

Ancient Wisdom

1^st Premise: All men tend by nature to know. 2^nd Premise: Knowledge through the senses gives wisdom. Thesis Conclusion: Human wisdom is to know the first causes and principles of things. (Fifteenth century BC) Aristotle tells us the ultimate goal of wisdom: knowledge of first principles.

Introduction to Early Greek Thought

The birthplace of Greek philosophy was the coast of Asia Minor, and the first philosophers were Ionians. Philosophy is both an individual activity and a product of society, reflected in the conception of law as the order of the cosmos. Philosophy arises from a shift in thinking: the abandonment of mythical thought and the emergence of rational thought. Mythical elements are found not only in the first philosophers... Continue reading "Origins of Western Philosophy: From Myth to Reason" »

Descartes, Rationalism, and the Enlightenment

René Descartes' philosophy significantly influenced the course of thought, paving the way for the 17th-century Enlightenment. The freedoms proclaimed during the Enlightenment—such as the autonomy of reason over the weight of authority and religious dogmatism in fields from politics to science—can be considered progress that contributes to our freedoms today.

The Mathematization of Reality

Regarding mathematization and scientific-technical development, Descartes proposed a method heavily influenced by mathematics. Contemporary Western science often continues under the premise that reality is mathematicizable. Knowing things involves quantifying them, and the mathematical model remains central to... Continue reading "Descartes vs Hume: Rationalism, Empiricism, and Modern Thought" »

Plato's Philosophy of Justice and Society

Plato's philosophy referenced a division of worlds: the ideal world (intelligible, perfect) and the real world (perceptible, imperfect). He posited that an ideal society would be divided into distinct classes:

• The class of the wise (philosopher-kings)
• The class of warriors
• The providers class (comprising the majority of the population)

Plato justified social inequality through these classes. A second notion of justice, according to Plato, was the equal treatment for all individuals within similar classes, encapsulated by the principle: "give each what they deserve."

St. Augustine's Legal and Philosophical Concepts

St. Augustine, a principal exponent of Patristic thought, was greatly influenced by Plato. Augustine'... Continue reading "Justice and Law: Ancient Philosophy to Medieval Church Authority" »

What Makes a Good Citizen?

The concept of a good citizen involves understanding and fulfilling certain principles. An act, when first affirmed, is often judged by its inherent goodness.

Living in a Cooperative World

To build a just and cooperative world, we must understand the human project and strive for the common good. All citizens possess rights and duties, and it is essential to fulfill them. We must foster sentiments that encourage this.

Core Principles of Citizenship

Responsibility

A good citizen must be responsible and attend to their duties. There are two main types of responsibility:

• Psychological Responsibility: Pertains to the actions we are accountable for.
• Ethical Responsibility: Involves the knowledge and compliance with one's own obligations

Regulated Text: This is a text that discusses a subject freely and subjectively, whether philosophical, historical, social, or other. Its aim is literary, educational, and persuasive. It is understood as a personal reflection, an attempt to interpret the human condition and the world from one's own knowledge and experience.

Features:

• Expressive Function: Expressing one's thoughts.
• Referential Function: Transmitting information.
• Persuasive Function: Influencing the reader.
• Contact Function: Establishing proximity with the reader.
• Aesthetic Function: Utilizing literary resources and personal style.
• Metalinguistic Function: Disclosing elements of the linguistic code.

Structure:

• Introduction
• Development
• Conclusion

Methods:

• Inductive Method: Moving from specific

Hume's Radical Empiricism

David Hume, a radical empiricist, argued that all ideas must be preceded by an impression. If there is no corresponding impression, the idea is not valid. This includes the concept of causality (cause and effect). Immanuel Kant, on the other hand, stated that while everything begins with experience, not everything arises from it.

Hume believed that our perceptions had no causality at all, but were merely linked by habit. The awareness of the principle of causality comes *after* the experience of apparent causal relationships. For Kant, however, the principle of causality is fundamental and necessary for the perception of sequences of events, that is, to limit knowledge to the *a priori*. Impressions are the experience;... Continue reading "Hume vs. Kant: Understanding Causality and Knowledge" »