Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Nazi Regime in Germany

Establishment of the Dictatorship

In 1933, the Nazis, led by Adolf Hitler, established a dictatorship in Germany. All political parties and trade unions were dissolved, the Reichstag (parliament) was effectively rendered powerless, elections were abolished, and individual liberties were suppressed. A systematic persecution of political opponents commenced, with only the Nazi Party (NSDAP) being authorized.

Workers were compelled to join the German Labour Front (Deutsche Arbeitsfront), the sole permitted trade union, which operated under National Socialist principles. The public administration was "purified" through laws, such as the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, authorizing the dismissal... Continue reading "Nazi Germany: Dictatorship, Terror, Path to War" »

In the old regime (AR), land ownership was paramount. The shift to a new regime (NR) was significantly influenced by changes in land ownership, primarily through confiscations. The forms of land ownership, along with technical aspects and crop types, were crucial factors. The primary goal of land confiscation was to transition from expropriated land to private property and a market economy.

Confiscated lands, previously held by the church, nobility, and municipalities, were considered "dead hand" assets, hindering the desired capitalist system. The confiscation laws aimed to transform institutional private property for market entry. These laws, enacted during liberal governments, sought to abolish feudal and jurisdictional rights, primogeniture,... Continue reading "Land Confiscation and Transformation in 19th Century" »

The Revolutions of 1820, primarily in Spain, Naples, and Greece, followed a period of dominant constitutional monarchy. Only in Greece did the revolt against the Turkish Empire result in British support, leading to the recognition of Greek independence in 1829. Many of these revolutions were spearheaded by minorities with secret societies, such as the Freemasons and Carbonari, deeply embedded within the military.

The Revolutions of 1848, inspired by the French Revolution, enjoyed widespread popular support initially. This wave of revolutions, while rapidly spreading across many countries, ultimately ended in failure. These revolutions championed democracy, demanding universal male suffrage and social republics. Europe was experiencing an... Continue reading "European Revolutions: 1820, 1848, and France" »

Anarchism in Catalonia

Anarchism was the ideology with the most significant influence among Catalan workers. This ideology also received strong support in Andalusia, particularly from agricultural laborers. In the late 19th century, anarchism in Catalonia was broadly divided into two trends:

• One trend focused on trade union action (syndicalism), with unions lobbying the government to achieve improvements for workers.
• The other trend involved 'propaganda by the deed,' which included acts of terrorism practiced against the bourgeoisie, the Church (l'Església), and the State (l'Estat).

Notable Anarchist Attacks

During the late 19th century, numerous attacks were carried out by anarchists, many of them in Barcelona. Each terrorist act was typically... Continue reading "Catalonia's Turbulent Era: Anarchism to Primo de Rivera" »

1. The Genesis of the Second Republic (1931)

The end of Primo de Rivera's dictatorship led King Alfonso XIII to reinstate the old system. However, municipal elections on April 12, 1931, resulted in a Republican victory in major cities, while monarchist parties dominated rural areas. Despite the overall monarchist vote, King Alfonso XIII went into exile, paving the way for the Second Republic.

2. The 1931 Constitution

Following the general election on June 9, 1931, a left-wing coalition, including Republican Socialists, secured a decisive victory. A new constitution was drafted with these key features:

• A Republican political system.
• Extensive human rights, including divorce and freedom of religion.
• Separation of church and state: Government subsidies

World War II

The Causes of War

Since Hitler's rise to power, German foreign policy was marked by aggression and expansionism. The Western democracies responded with appeasement, which Hitler perceived as weakness, emboldening his expansionist ambitions.

One hidden aspect of Nazi foreign policy was the planned invasion of Poland. Germany signed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, including a secret protocol to partition Poland.

Development of the War

In September 1939, Germany invaded Poland.

Due to Poland's international alliances, the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. This formed two opposing sides: the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the Allies (Britain, France, and other smaller countries).

The German Offensive

French Revolution

The most prominent group was the Girondins. The monarchy was abolished, and the Republic was proclaimed in 1792. Louis XVI was guillotined. Popular discontent before the war was exploited by radical Jacobins to access power. Their leader, Robespierre, proclaimed a more democratic constitution in 1793, which established universal male suffrage. He used terror and the guillotine against those who opposed the system. After Robespierre's demise via the guillotine, power shifted to members of the center, who crafted the Constitution of 1795.

The Consulate

Composition

Executive power was to be held by a directory of five members. Napoleon Bonaparte carried out several military campaigns in Italy and Egypt. He staged a coup in 1799 and... Continue reading "French Revolution, Napoleon, and Unification of Italy & Germany" »

International Involvement in the Spanish Civil War

Europe and the Western world viewed the Civil War as their own, participating directly or indirectly. It has been said that it was a civil war among Europeans. From the outset, the conflict was international: the Republicans sought help from France, Britain, and the Soviet Union, as well as nationals from Germany and Italy.

The Committee of Non-Intervention and Republican Aid

The committee of non-intervention and aid received by the Republic from Blum's Popular Front government was of great interest to Republicans. However, pressure from the right and British reluctance hindered them. Only 300 planes were able to reach them. Great Britain, concerned about the possibility of Gibraltar being affected... Continue reading "Foreign Powers and the Spanish Civil War" »

Vatican

1. Location: Vatican, Rome (IT)
2. Architect: Gian Lorenzo Bernini
3. Style: Baroque
4. Period: 1656-1667
5. Element: Lintel

Historical Context of the Baroque Period

This period is notable for the interplay between crisis and progress. Many problems occurred: social conflict, stagnation in the fields and industry, pestilence, and war. But on the other hand, it is the time when colonial empires emerged to alleviate these crises.

Cultural Context

The art center during the 17th century was in Rome. During this period, there was a scientific breakthrough in opera.

Religious Context

The principles of the Catholic Church were reaffirmed, strengthening the papacy and the Jesuits, created to curb the Counter-Reformation.

The Role of Baroque Art

The role of Baroque art... Continue reading "Villa La Rotonda: A Palladian Masterpiece" »

The First Carlist War: A Detailed Account

Phases of the First Carlist War

1. Formation of the Basque-Navarrese Insurrection (1833-1835)

   The army managed to suppress Elizabethan Carlist nuclei, except in the Basque Country and Navarra, where Carlist Colonel Zumalacarregui formed an army from the existing guerrilla bands.

2. The National Expeditions (1836-1837)

   The Carlists organized forays outside of the two nuclei in their control (Basque Country and the Mastership). Several military expeditions traveled the Cristino territory, but hardly found popular support. The most important was the actual issue.

3. The Elizabethan Initiative and the Convention of Vergara (1837-1839)

   The signing of the Convention of Vergara (1839) was symbolically sealed with the embrace