Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Traits of Fascism

Fascism emerged in Italy after the First World War and became the most prominent ideology in the interwar period. The anti-parliamentary and anti-fascist stance became the main dividing line between political parties and citizens. Key doctrinal principles that characterize fascism include:

Radical Nationalism

Fascism often embodies the nationalism of peoples defeated in a contest or defrauded for not achieving what they consider a right. This radical nationalism easily transitions into imperialism, land claims, and an aggressive, militaristic, and anti-liberal policy.

Anti-Parliamentarianism

Fascism encourages the submission of the individual and the denial of personal freedoms. Individuals are subordinate to the dictatorial state,... Continue reading "Understanding Fascism: Key Traits, Rise of Mussolini, and Italy After WWI" »

Primo de Rivera's Dictatorship

• In the first phase of the dictatorship (1923-1925), the government was in the hands of a military directory. This directory suspended the constitution of 1876, dissolved the Cortes, forbade political parties, repressed the labor movement and nationalism, and defeated the Rif rebellion after the Alhucemas landing.
• In the second phase (1925-1930), Primo de Rivera formed a Civil Directory. This government promoted irrigated agriculture and industry and boosted the construction of roads and the improvement of railways. However, facing the repercussions of the 1929 crisis, rising unemployment, the labor movement, the revival of nationalism, and opposition from intellectuals, Primo de Rivera resigned in 1930.

An attempt... Continue reading "Spain: Dictatorship, Republic, and Civil War" »

The Final Crisis of the Restoration: The Impact of the First World War and the Exhaustion of the Political System

During the last years of the reign of Alfonso XIII, the political and social bases of the Restoration weakened. The deterioration of the political system became more evident. A crisis erupted in 1917. The military, political, and social crisis was controlled by the government, but in the following years, its decomposition was evident, ultimately leading to the 1923 military coup of Primo de Rivera. Before the crisis of 1914, it's important to recall the Crisis of '98 and the Tragic Week in Barcelona in 1909, which also influenced the 1917 crisis.

The Crisis of 1917

The crisis of 1917 was due to the deterioration of political life and... Continue reading "Spain's Restoration Crisis: WWI & Political System Collapse" »

The Roaring Twenties

After World War I, the United States and Europe experienced economic growth. New York became the world's financial center. From 1923, increased production reduced unemployment and improved living standards. However, this period of expansion ended abruptly in 1929.

The 1929 Crash

The U.S. economy faced excessive credit dependence. Companies and consumers were encouraged to take loans, fueling production and stock market investments. The initial stock market downturns caused panic among investors, culminating in Black Thursday on October 24, 1929. The New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) collapsed, preventing shareholders from repaying loans and triggering a series of bank failures. Many people were financially ruined. The United... Continue reading "Interwar Period: Economic Crisis, Fascism, and Spanish Civil War" »

Franco's Economic Policy: Autarky and Liberalization

The Axes of Autarky

The Franco regime implemented an economic policy of autarky. This policy aimed for a state to be considered politically and militarily strong, and thus had to be economically self-sufficient. At the conclusion of military hostilities, the Spanish economy was profoundly disjointed. Agricultural and industrial production was much lower than in 1935, gold and currency reserves were depleted, and the transport network was severely damaged. The regime sought to achieve economic self-isolation from the outside world and replace the liberal economic system with an interventionist state policy, taking charge of industrializing the country. Autarky had three main areas:

• The first

Decline of the Spanish Empire

During the reign of Fernando VII, the Spanish Empire lost most of its mainland American colonies. Only Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippine Islands remained under Spanish sovereignty.

Colonial Administration Challenges

Colonial problems severely strained the administration. Rulers had to contend with Cuba's long war (1868-1878).

Cuba's Struggle for Independence

Cuba was closely linked to the U.S. economy and desired similar economic and democratic development. The U.S. even expressed interest in buying the island.

Parallel rebellions occurred in Cuba. The last, led by Céspedes, began with the "Cry of Yara," a village where the Ten Years' War started, lasting until 1878.

Furthermore, problems within the Spanish government... Continue reading "Spain's Last Colonies: Cuba, PR, Philippines" »

Franco's Spain: The Dictatorship (1939-1975)

Opposition to Franco's regime faced significant challenges. Internal dissent was minimal due to purges, imprisonment, or exile. The most organized opposition came from the PCE (Spanish Communist Party), which gained some traction among workers by organizing factory workers' committees. Neighborhood associations provided the only real avenue for political activity within the confines of the regime.

Stages of the Franco Regime

1939-1950: Autarky

In the aftermath of the Spanish Civil War, the government solidified its authoritarian rule and initially aligned with the fascist Axis powers. However, by 1942, its orientation began to shift. The postwar years were marked by widespread hunger. Economic hardship,... Continue reading "Spain Under Franco: A Historical Analysis of the Regime" »

Charles III Ruled in Spain Until His Death

Ancien Régime: Political, Social, and Economic Characteristics of the States Before the French and Industrial Revolutions (Late Eighteenth Century)

King = Ruler (executive, legislative, judicial)

• Absolute Monarchy: Concentration of powers, the king is the law and sovereignty of divine origin, subjects with no rights or freedoms.
• Stratified Society: Legal inequality, privileges by birth, privileged classes (nobility, clergy), non-privileged estates (Third Estate).
• Agricultural Sector: Land is the primary source of wealth and power. Nobility is honorable (economic and political power). The Third Estate has no privileges (peasantry, bourgeoisie).
• Business: The secondary source of wealth. The bourgeoisie has

World War I: A Phased Analysis

First Phase: War of Movement (1914)

The Germans implemented the Schlieffen Plan, which involved invading France through neutral Belgium. Before war was declared between France and Germany, the Germans occupied Luxembourg and invaded Belgium. This plan failed because the Germans had not anticipated Great Britain's entry into the war and Belgian resistance. On the Western Front, the rapid German advance forced the French to retreat to the vicinity of the Marne River. France launched a counteroffensive, initiating the Battle of the Marne. The French surprised the Germans, forcing them to withdraw. This battle marked an unexpected victory for the French army and led to a unique and unusual form of warfare: the war of

German Pavilion by Mies van der Rohe

The German Pavilion, designed by Mies van der Rohe, is a seminal work of mid-century architecture, completed in 1929.

Historical Context (1929)

In 1929, Spain was under the reign of Alfonso XIII, with Primo de Rivera holding power. Meanwhile, Germany was the Weimar Republic. The German population was growing, with industry being the main occupation.

Mies van der Rohe's Career

Mies van der Rohe was a leading representative of rationalist architecture. Of German origin, his career can be divided into two parts. His initial training and practice were in Berlin until just after World War I, a period when Germany was devastated. He was part of a group tasked with rebuilding the country. Thereafter, his career ascended.... Continue reading "German Pavilion Barcelona: Mies van der Rohe's Masterpiece" »