Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Political Parties in the Second Spanish Republic

Following the proclamation of the Republic, a provisional government was formed. It represented all the forces that signed the Pact of San Sebastián:

• Liberal Republican Right: Alcalá Zamora (President), Miguel Maura (Interior)
• Radical Republican Party: Lerroux (State), Martínez Barrio (Communications)
• Republican Action: Azaña (War)
• Radical Socialist Republican Party: Marcelino Domingo (Education), Álvaro Albornoz (Development), Nicolau D'Oliver (Economy), Casares Quiroga (Navy)
• PSOE: Indalecio Prieto (Finance), Fernando de los Rios (Justice), Largo Caballero (Labor)

It was not a revolutionary government. The members were mostly middle-class men aware of the need to modernize the country, but supporters... Continue reading "Spanish Second Republic: Parties & Early Challenges" »

Regional Council

A body formed by the unification of various councils, boards, and committees to organize regional governments. These councils gathered the forces of the Popular Front. An example is the Sovereign Council of Asturias.

Juan Negrín

The last Prime Minister of the Republic during the Civil War. He was in favor of maintaining the fight until the commencement of World War II.

Manuel Azaña

Served as Minister of the Interim Government and was a reformist Prime Minister from 1931 to 1933. He later became President of the Republic from 1936 to 1939. He resigned and died in exile in 1940.

Committee on Non-Intervention

Driven by France, this committee was created in London in August 1936. Its stated aim was to prevent foreign intervention in... Continue reading "Spanish Civil War: Crucial Terms, Figures, and Events" »

Porguerra Ecnomus: The Situation: There were heavy losses and spending; the only exception was the U.S., which became the great industrial power. They had to resort to inflation, state intervention, and other measures that contradicted the principles of economic liberalism. The post-war unrest in Europe attempted to recover the normal pre-war economy.

Crisis of 1929: The U.S. was the best reflection of confidence in the future, experiencing a significant economic expansion. The population contracted credits and speculated on the New York Stock Exchange, aiming for profits. October 24, 1929, was Black Thursday on Wall Street. That year, several warnings generated suspicion among speculators, leading to a massive sell-off as everyone wanted to... Continue reading "Understanding Economic Crises and Their Impact on Society" »

Understanding Early American Colonization and Global Trade

Christopher Columbus

An Italian sea captain who initiated European contact with the Americas in 1492.

Colony

A territory or land controlled by another nation, often for economic or strategic benefit.

Hernán Cortés

A Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that conquered the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century.

Conquistador

Spanish soldiers, explorers, and fortune hunters who participated in the conquest of the Americas during the 16th century.

Francisco Pizarro

A Spanish conquistador known for his conquest of the Incan Empire in 1533.

Atahualpa

The last independent Incan emperor, famously captured by the Spanish conquistadors.

Mestizo

A term used in colonial Latin America to describe a person... Continue reading "Key Terms of Early American Colonization & Global Trade" »

Roman Britain: Conquest and Early Rule

Early Roman Expeditions

• Julius Caesar: Campaigns in 55 BC and 54 BC.
• Caesar was murdered in 44 BC.
• Indirect Romanization: Achieved through treaties, tribute, trade, elite exchange of luxury goods, and Roman education for chiefs’ sons.

The Claudian Invasion of 43 AD

• The invasion occurred in 43 AD under Emperor Claudius (in office since 41 AD, succeeding Caligula).
• The lowlands (approximately half of modern England) were easily invaded within four years of campaigning; three client kingdoms were respected.

Resistance Against Roman Rule

Boudicca's Rebellion (60-61 AD)

• Boudicca was the wife of the client king of the Iceni in what is now Norfolk.
• When her husband died, she was flogged and her daughters raped.
• Her rebellion

Nueva Planta Decrees

The Nueva Planta Decrees were a series of decrees issued in Spain in the early eighteenth century by Philip V. They abolished the self-government of the Kingdoms of Aragon, Valencia, Majorca, and the Principality of Catalonia. These decrees were a response to the support given by institutions in these territories to Archduke Charles of Austria (later Emperor Charles VI) during the War of the Spanish Succession.

Enlightened Despotism

Enlightened Despotism (also known as enlightened absolutism) is a political concept associated with absolute monarchies and the governmental systems of the Old Regime in Europe. It incorporated ideas from the Enlightenment, asserting that a ruler's decisions should be guided by reason.

Validos

Validos... Continue reading "Key Historical Terms of the Spanish Monarchy" »

The Core Message of the Spanish Crown

This analysis presents four sets of main ideas derived from the Crown's message:

1. The institution that embodies and integrates all Spanish people.
2. That all understand with generosity and breadth of vision that our future will be based on an effective consensus of national harmony.
3. A just, equal award for all, within the unity of the kingdom and the rule of regional autonomy.
4. The Crown must also be understood as the recognition of fundamental social and economic rights, which aims to ensure all Spanish citizens the material conditions enabling them to effectively exercise all their freedoms.

Integration and Reconciliation

The first two points focus on recognizing that the monarchy serves as an instrument of integration... Continue reading "The Spanish Monarchy's Four Pillars of National Harmony and Transition" »

Pre-War Conflicts Leading to World War I

With the two sides defined, Europe was under great strain, which is why this period is known as the Armed Peace (a time when, despite the absence of declared wars, all countries were preparing for one).

Key Conflicts Paving the Way for War

• Colonial Encounters

  These were largely driven by Germany. Kaiser Wilhelm II favored a more aggressive policy. He dismissed Bismarck and embarked on a series of attempts to gain ground in the colonies.

  In 1905, the First Moroccan Crisis took place. Wilhelm II supported the Sultan of Morocco to resist France's attempts to create a protectorate. War was narrowly avoided. To resolve the conflict, the Conference of Algeciras was held in 1906, where Spanish and French protectorates

Francoist Spain: The Later Years (1959-1975)

Political System & Governance

The political system maintained its ideological bases. The press law abolished censorship. The Organic Law of the State separated the posts of head of state and prime minister, confirming Spain as a kingdom. Franco designated Prince Juan Carlos de Borbón as his successor.

In the governments of this period, the Falange lost influence in favor of technocrats, many of whom were from Opus Dei. Their main objectives were economic development and ensuring social stability.

Opposition & Social Conflict

Opposition to the dictatorship grew significantly. It comprised the CCOO and UGT trade unions, the PSOE (which had renounced Marxism), the PC (aligned with Eurocommunism)... Continue reading "Francoist Spain: Political & Economic Shifts (1939-1975)" »

Immediate Effects of WWI in Europe

The aftermath of World War I led to the dissolution of authoritarian empires and the emergence of new republics with parliamentary systems. Democracy was consolidated in some nations, with the introduction of male suffrage and benefits like 8-hour workdays and unemployment support. However, the 1920s saw Europe grapple with economic hardship due to inflation, declining yields, and rising unemployment, exacerbated by the 1929 crisis.

Social unrest, including strikes and protests, further destabilized the continent. These demonstrations were often met with harsh repression, limiting trade union rights and fueling political turmoil.

Oldest Democracies and Post-War Crisis

Faced with economic chaos and social unrest,... Continue reading "Post-WWI Europe: Political Shifts, Economic Crisis, and Fascism" »