European Revolutions: 1820, 1848, and France

The Revolutions of 1820, primarily in Spain, Naples, and Greece, followed a period of dominant constitutional monarchy. Only in Greece did the revolt against the Turkish Empire result in British support, leading to the recognition of Greek independence in 1829. Many of these revolutions were spearheaded by minorities with secret societies, such as the Freemasons and Carbonari, deeply embedded within the military.

The Revolutions of 1848, inspired by the French Revolution, enjoyed widespread popular support initially. This wave of revolutions, while rapidly spreading across many countries, ultimately ended in failure. These revolutions championed democracy, demanding universal male suffrage and social republics. Europe was experiencing an agrarian crisis, and major industrial cities witnessed widespread barricades. The most significant revolution within the Austrian Empire led to the overturning of granted policies, with the army brutally suppressing uprisings in major cities. Despite their failure, these revolutions had lasting consequences:

• The existing international European system was abandoned.
• Unsatisfied nationalism emerged in areas like Germany and Italy.
• Liberals secured significant economic concessions.
• Reforms were implemented without social pressure.
• The bourgeoisie collaborated with governments, becoming increasingly conservative.
• Urban workers became politically organized.

The French Revolution: France declared war on European monarchies, leading to Louis XVI being viewed as a traitor. The Girondins held power briefly before being overthrown by angry insurgents. This revolt established the republic, leading to the election of the Convention through universal male suffrage. The Jacobins and sans-culottes gained control, implementing the following:

• A constitution establishing a republic based on universal male suffrage was approved.
• Measures to combat treason were enacted through the Committee of Public Safety and the Revolutionary Tribunal, resulting in widespread repression and the execution of the King, Queen, Girondins, and Robespierre (the Reign of Terror).
• Rising food prices were addressed.

Robespierre's measures, while initially successful in overcoming power struggles, invading armies, and economic turmoil, ultimately led to the Jacobins' downfall due to their unpopular methods. The Thermidorian Reaction saw the Convention overthrow the Jacobins. The bourgeoisie then took control, suppressing many Jacobin policies and establishing a new constitution. France continued its war against European powers, with political extremes on both the left and right. Napoleon Bonaparte seized power through the coup of Brumaire, proclaiming himself Emperor. Napoleon created a new political system incorporating revolutionary ideas, including:

• New institutions, such as the Bank of France.
• Imposition of a single currency.
• Unified legislation through the Napoleonic Code.
• A centralized government administration.
• Public education reform.
• A concordat with the Church.
• Dissemination of revolutionary ideas and achievements.