Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The League of Nations' Failure in Manchuria

The League of Nations demonstrated a significant weakness in its inability to prevent the Sino-Japanese conflict in Manchuria. A bombing attributed to a Chinese group on the South Manchurian Railway, under Tokyo's control as per the 1905 treaty, led to the complete occupation of Manchuria and the establishment of a puppet regime. Japan ignored complaints from both China and the League of Nations. The only penalty imposed was the non-recognition of the Japanese-backed state of Manchukuo. In response to the disarmament policies being promoted, Japan and Germany withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933.

The failure of the disarmament conference that year, attended by the United States, the USSR, Britain,

Spain's Path to Democracy

The law mandated general elections but required the legalization of all political parties. In early 1977, the right of political association was regulated, leading to the legalization of approximately 150 parties. International credibility for the elections hinged on this legalization, with the PCE's legalization posing a significant challenge.

After negotiations, particularly with Santiago Carrillo, President Suarez legalized the PCE on April 9, a move seen as courageous and decisive for Spanish reconciliation. This decision caused unrest in the military, leading to the resignation of the Marine minister. General elections, the first since February 16, 1936, were called for June 15, 1977.

The elected Parliament, initially... Continue reading "Spain's Transition to Democracy: Key Events and Constitution" »

Development Causes Totalitarianism: Liberal System Failure

Several factors contributed to the rise of totalitarian regimes in the early 20th century, highlighting a perceived failure of liberal systems:

• Policy: Government instability resulting from the struggle between parties.
• Economic: The economic collapse of European countries following the U.S. crisis led to a dramatic rise in unemployment.
• Social: Ex-combatants returning from the war and the unemployed found work, swelling the ranks of paramilitary organizations.
• Nationalism: Nationalists never ceased ethnic and border conflicts. These conflicts led many countries to question the liberal system and implement autocratic systems.

Fascist Italy

Despite being on the winning side of World War I,... Continue reading "Rise of Totalitarianism: Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany" »

France's Interwar Challenges and Resilience

The French Republic also suffered the impact of the First World War, to an even greater extent than Britain. France had dedicated more human and financial resources to the conflict, leaving the country deeply in debt. France underwent dramatic moments until 1924, then experienced a period of prosperity. However, after the crisis of 1923, it suffered a serious economic and social depression. France successfully prevented the establishment of authoritarianism thanks to the following factors:

• A Mixed Electoral System: Candidates who obtained an absolute majority in each constituency were elected automatically. This system encouraged the formation of coalitions before elections, with the intention of achieving

The 17th Century: Europe's New International Order

The seventeenth century, often called the "Iron Century," saw the advent and consolidation of a new international order in Europe, marked by constant warfare. The cruel Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) and the related Franco-Spanish War, which ended in 1659, are prime examples of this.

The Peace of Westphalia and a New European Order

The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 brought an end to the Thirty Years' War. This treaty marked the triumph of a "horizontal Europe," based on independent monarchies pursuing a diplomatic and military balance, and the defeat of the idea of a "vertical Europe," in which kingdoms would be subordinate to the Emperor and the Pope. Moreover, the Peace of Westphalia signaled the... Continue reading "Spain and the 17th Century: The Habsburg Decline in Europe" »

The France of Napoleon Bonaparte

Initially, Napoleon shared power, but in 1802, he was declared sole consul for life. A new constitution established a strong executive, limited suffrage to the wealthy, and nullified the Bill of Rights. He also joined the royalists in their schemes with measures like the return of emigrants and the restoration of Catholic worship through a Concordat. Napoleon gradually accumulated power until, in 1804, he was crowned emperor. He addressed the creation of new institutions and reforms to consolidate the principles of 1791. He developed a Civil Code, a Commercial Code, and a Criminal Code that sanctioned equality before the law, property rights, individual freedom, conscience, and work, as well as free access to... Continue reading "Napoleon Bonaparte's France and 19th-Century European Revolutions" »

Inquisition and the Alhambra Decree

The Inquisition was an ancient ecclesiastical tribunal established to prosecute crimes against the faith. It originated in France in the 12th century and later spread to Spain.

The Alhambra Decree was a decree published by the Catholic Monarchs, in which Jews were forced to convert to Catholicism or be expelled.

Capitulations of Santa Fe and Explorers

The Capitulations of Santa Fe was a document signed between the Catholic Monarchs and Christopher Columbus regarding his expedition to the Indies. Columbus was appointed admiral, viceroy, and governor of the discovered territories and was entitled to 10% of the wealth he found.

• Hernán Cortés: Spanish explorer and conquistador who defeated the Aztecs and conquered

The Proclamation of the Republic and Constitutional Period

Elections and the Provisional Government

On April 12, 1931, municipal elections were held by universal male suffrage. On April 14, elected council members proclaimed the Republic, and King Alfonso XIII decided to give up and relinquish royal power in the country. In Madrid, representatives of various parties formed a provisional government and proclaimed the Second Spanish Republic. This government immediately called for constituent parliamentary elections and enacted a series of urgent measures. The new Republic's promises garnered widespread popular support, but also faced animosity from large landowners, the financial oligarchy, parts of the Army, and the Church. The general elections... Continue reading "The Second Spanish Republic: Foundations and Political Landscape" »

The Radical-CEDA Biennium: The Revolution of 1934

The dissolution of parliament in September 1933 ended the alliance between the Radical Party and the Socialists under Azaña. The right wing reorganized during the biennium, with two main trends. First, the opposition to the Republic, including Monarchists, Traditionalists, and Fascists (JONS, Falange Española), who merged in 1934. Second, the Republican right, composed of CEDA and Acción Popular. The political campaign was very tense, revealing a deep division in society. The Socialists considered CEDA and its leader, Gil Robles, to be fascist and threatened a revolution if the right won the elections. The right, in turn, regarded the Socialists as revolutionary, aiming to revise the Constitution... Continue reading "Spain's Tumultuous 1930s: Radicalization, Elections, and the Popular Front" »

This document assesses the industrial development of Spain and Catalonia in relation to the more industrialized countries of Europe. Spain took a while to develop its industry. As we can see in the graphic, other countries were already highly industrialized by the year 1870, whereas Spain and Catalonia, seven years later, in 1877, were not yet equal to other countries. Most of its economic sector continued to be based on the primary sector, and there was very little population engaged in the secondary and tertiary sectors. We can also observe that Catalonia became industrialized before the rest of Spain.

Obstacles to Industrialization in Spain

Spaniards encountered the problem of a lack of money. They had only the money necessary to live, and... Continue reading "Spain's Industrialization: Challenges and Economic Impact" »