Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

Franco's Spain (1939-1975)

On April 1, 1939, the Spanish Civil War ended, leaving approximately 300,000 Spaniards dead. For those who survived, a long and difficult post-war period began. To celebrate his victory, General Francisco Franco (also known as "El Caudillo"), presided over a large military parade in Madrid on May 19, 1939. Representatives from the foreign countries that had aided him were in attendance.

At that time, Franco held the highest degree of power in Spanish history. He was Head of State, Head of Government, Commander of the Armed Forces, and head of the only permitted party: the nationalist Spanish Falange. The new state declared itself a confessional Catholic state and a defender of the faith, restoring power to the Catholic... Continue reading "Franco's Spain: Dictatorship and Post-War Era (1939-1975)" »

The 1869 Spanish Constitution: A Milestone of Liberalism

From Moderate Governments to Radical Change

From 1843 to 1868, progressive yet moderate governments shaped Spain's constitutional landscape, culminating in the 1845 constitution. However, the Revolution of 1868 ushered in the 1869 Constitution, a radical departure from its predecessor.

Expanded Suffrage and the Constituent Cortes

The revolutionaries established new rules for electing the Constituent Cortes, granting voting rights to men over twenty. This resulted in a census of nearly four million people, roughly a quarter of the total population. The drafting committee aimed to create a comprehensive constitution based on this expanded suffrage.

The Rise of Doctrinaire Liberalism

The influence... Continue reading "Spain's 1869 Constitution: A Milestone of Liberalism" »

The Reign of Isabella II (1833-1868)

Early Years and Marriage

Isabella II began her reign at the age of 13 in 1833. Three years later, she married her cousin, Francisco de Asís, a husband imposed by government interests. The marriage was a failure, as the couple reportedly hated each other.

Dominance of the Moderates (1844-1854)

During Isabella II's reign, the Moderate Party held significant power. The Queen entrusted them with forming governments, excluding the Progressives. The Progressives, in turn, opted for either exclusion from government or violent uprisings, such as military revolts. The Moderates remained in power between 1844 and 1854, with Ramón María Narváez notably holding the premiership on several occasions.

This period, marked... Continue reading "Reign of Isabella II & Spanish Politics: Moderates, Espartero, & the Sexenio" »

The 1936 Spanish Elections: A Critical Analysis

This analysis focuses on the political-electoral landscape of February 1936 during the Second Republic, specifically examining the composition of the Cortes (parliament) following the elections of February 16, 1936, at the end of the right-wing period. The data is presented in a bar graph format, with the vertical axis representing the number of seats obtained (in increments of 10) and the horizontal axis indicating the political forces that secured those seats.

Brief Summary of the Election Results

After a fiercely contested election campaign, the left-wing bloc emerged victorious, overturning the previous political order. This outcome significantly contributed to the events that ultimately led... Continue reading "1936 Spanish Elections: A Turning Point in History" »

Adultery, Justice, and Athenian Law

Anyway, I was told in detail everything that happened. When he left, I replied, "Beware, lest you learn this at all. Or, is void anything we agreed? I ask that I show it all in flagrant [delict]; because I do not need words, but show me clear that the fact, if it is." She pledged. So it took four or five days after this conversation, as I will show overwhelming evidence.

But first I will relate what happened the last day. Sostratus is a relative and my friend. I found him after sunset, when coming from the field. Since I knew that if I arrived at that time I would not find any of his relatives at home, I invited him to dinner with me. We arrived at my house and went upstairs to dine. When he was fine, he retired,... Continue reading "Adultery, Justice, and Athenian Law: A True Story" »

The Regency of Maria Cristina

Upon the death of Ferdinand VII, the coronation of Elizabeth II was carried out. However, because she was a minor, her mother, Maria Cristina, exercised the regency. This period coincided with the start of the First Carlist War, leading the regent to seek support from the Liberals to maintain the future Queen Elizabeth II on the throne. To this end, she moved away from absolutism, although the ruler's idea was to carry out some administrative changes while essentially leaving the political system unchanged. She appointed Cea Bermudez, a moderate absolutist, as prime minister. His most notable work was carried out by Javier de Burgos, which involved the division of Spain into 49 provinces in 1833, placing a civil... Continue reading "Maria Cristina's Regency and the Rise of Liberalism in Spain" »

The Scientific Revolution

During the Middle Ages, Christian thought saw the divine intervention in the world as total and, therefore, as the proximate cause of any phenomenon. For example, rain was explained by the will of God and not by the condensation of clouds. In exchange for humans, God had created the world, but could also establish cause and effect in which his intervention was unnecessary.

Concerns about finding explanations for the root causes of phenomena brought a renewed interest in understanding the place of Earth within the universe. Up to that time, a geocentric interpretation predominated, meaning that the Earth was considered to be motionless in the center of the universe and all the stars revolved around it. In 1543, the astronomer... Continue reading "The Scientific Revolution and Feudalism" »

Unifications of Italy and Germany

The territory occupied by present-day Italy was divided into six independent states. Austria had annexed the two northern regions (Piedmont and Lombardy), which were the richest. Thus, unification seemed difficult. However, in 1859, Cavour, the leader of the Piedmontese government, started a war with Austria and achieved the annexation of Lombardy. Meanwhile, Garibaldi led several popular uprisings aimed at the unification of the territories of the peninsula. In 1861, the first Italian parliament appointed King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy. Only Veneto remained in Austrian hands, but it was abandoned in 1866. The unification was completed in 1870 after the Papal States were annexed, and Rome was named the capital... Continue reading "European and American Revolutions: 18th and 19th Centuries" »

Key Political and Economic Systems

Anarchism

A doctrine that calls for the disappearance of the state and of all power.

Ancien Régime

The economic, social, and political system that came from the decomposition of medieval feudalism and remained in effect in Europe until the Industrial Revolution and the liberal revolutions.

Bolshevik

The revolution maintained that the bourgeoisie had to have a socialist character and be led by the proletariat.

Bourgeoisie

A social class formed especially of traders, artisans, and free people who were not subject to feudal lords.

Concentration Camps

Camps where the population was undernourished and forced into hard labor, where over time they died.

Capitalism

A system in which the instruments of production were privately... Continue reading "Key Political and Economic Systems: Definitions" »

San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane

Timeline

• Church and Monastery: 1638-1641
• Facade: 1665-1667

Style

• High Baroque
• Architect: Francesco Borromini
• Materials: Brick and Stucco
• Building System: Trabeated and Vaulted
• Location: Rome, Italy

Structure

• Columns: Large perimeter columns support the load.
• Verticality: The church's elevation creates an upward movement.

Exterior and Interior Space

• Facade: Two levels with close correspondence.
• Columns: Tall, closely spaced columns emphasize upward movement.
• Undulating Design: Concave and convex elements create a dynamic facade.
• Interior: Oval plan with intricate, winding space.
• Columns: Sixteen giant columns support the composite cornice.
• Dome: Oval with geometric coffers (octagons, hexagons, crosses) and a lantern.
• Perspective: