Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Catalan Nationalism and the Basque Nationalist Defense

As a Catalan nationalist defense of the charters, an atmosphere was created, but other characteristics of the modern middle class were not found. Provincial legislation to repeal the historical and philosophical impact of two answers: the use of a particular situation and giving up some of the concert in Madrid, while other economic traditionalism into the charters, maintaining a full recovery was made in favor of.

These were lost in the Carlist War, and the charters for them to leave the entire defense of *euskaltasunaren* cord. Sabino Arana was the driving force behind the nineties *Euskara Abertsaletasunaren hamrkdan*. Social ideas were tied together and were clear. The old motto was God... Continue reading "Catalan Nationalism and Industrialization in the Basque Country" »

Primo de Rivera's Dictatorship: An Introduction

On September 13, after some hesitation, Miguel Primo de Rivera initiated a military coup in Spain.

The 1923 Coup: Context and Causes

The coup emerged from a prolonged crisis within the existing political system. Primo de Rivera's authoritarian regime aimed to transform the popular will, and it was widely believed that the coup could not succeed without the consent of various regions.

Causes of the Coup

• External Circumstances:
  • The triumph of revolutionary movements and the general crisis in Europe.
  • The implantation of new political ideologies.
• Internal Circumstances:
  • The decline of the political system.
  • Public disorder and general unrest.
  • The growing prominence of the military.
  • The rise of peripheral nationalism.

The Popular Front (February 1936 - July 1936)

The harsh repression against the *left* during the *right-wing* biennium enabled the union of forces against the conservative government. The election on February 16, 1936, formed two blocks of clear antagonism: the Right and Left.

1. The Elections of February 1936

The parties of the *left* were grouped in the Popular Front, an electoral coalition based on a common program that defended the position of amnesty for those jailed for the 1934 revolution of October, restoration of fees and jobs for those retaliated against for political reasons, and the application of amended legislation that was suspended by the radical coalition succeeded by CEDA (Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Rights). The *right-

The Era of Al-Andalus

The Origins of Al-Andalus

In 711, an army of Berbers and Arabs crossed the strait separating Europe and Africa. The general of this army was named Tariq ibn Ziyad. Since then, the place where he landed has been called Gibraltar (from 'Jabal Tariq' or Mount Tariq).

Only one major battle, the Battle of Guadalete, was enough to defeat the Visigothic king, Roderic, and the peninsula offered little further resistance. Within three years, it became a dependent province under the Caliph of Damascus.

The history of Al-Andalus spanned eight centuries, concluding in 1492 when the Christian Reconquista captured Granada, the last Muslim kingdom in Spain. However, it wasn't until 1609 that the last Moriscos (Muslims who remained in Christian... Continue reading "The Rich History of Al-Andalus: Islamic Spain's Golden Age" »

RENAISSANCE

The universalist spirit that characterized Europe in the thirteenth century became fragmented during the fourteenth century and disappeared during the fifteenth. In newly created universities across Europe, an attitude of critical thinking developed, replacing the ideals that the Church had provided during the early Gothic period. But fundamentally, the rapidly developing mercantile and industrial bourgeoisie determined the new interests of society.

This new society was not only forgetting the faith and enthusiasm that had led previous generations to build cathedrals, but also considered that the artistic language characteristic of the thirteenth century no longer made sense.

The incipient humanism that emerged with the early Gothic... Continue reading "The Renaissance: Origins and Italian Influence" »

The Spanish Constitution of 1931

The first step of the new government, headed by Manuel Azaña, was the drafting of a constitution, leading to 1931, whose principles were:

• It defined Spain as a "democratic republic of workers of all kinds," organized in a system of "freedom and justice."
• Proclaimed equality before the law and gave a comprehensive statement of rights.
• The state was unique but admitted possible regional autonomy.
• Recognized private property, although it admitted the possibility of compensation prior to expropriation, provided that the national interest demanded it.
• The courts acquired great power, both legislative and control over the government, and consisted of a single chamber elected by universal suffrage, also including women.

The Liberal Republic (1861-1891)

Aníbal Pinto G. (President)

• Allowed the entry of women to the University
• Secondary Education Act
• Faced regalist government positions
• International Economic Crisis
• Started the Pacific War
• Gave away Patagonia
• Home pacification of Araucanía

Domingo Santa María (President)

• Secular laws
• Cemeteries Lay Act
• Creation of civil registration and civil marriage
• Further extension of the law of incompatibility
• Gave away Patagonia
• End of the Pacific War

José Manuel Balmaceda (President)

• Founded the Catholic University
• Pedagogical Institute
• Civil War
• MOP Foundation
• Railroad construction
• Upgrading of roads
• Water supply

The Pacific War (War of the Pacific)

Causes

Economic: Seizing the rich nitrate zone (Peru, Chile, and Bolivia) to face the 1878 global... Continue reading "Chilean History: Liberal Republic, Pacific War, and Indigenous Rights" »

The Rise of Citizen Assemblies in Medieval Europe

In England, the presence of citizens and "ordinary people" in assemblies coincided with the achievement of freedom and the absolute failure of the first half of the thirteenth century. After the Magna Carta, King John summoned a meeting in Oxford, attended by representatives of the counties to discuss the affairs of the kingdom.

The turnout of people from cities to the curiae convened by the Kings is located in Western Europe at various times of the thirteenth or fourteenth century. They were present in 1188 at the meeting convened by Alfonso IX in Leon, where the king met with clergy, nobles, and citizens.

Why Did Alfonso IX Convene the Meeting of 1188?

Probably, as Professor Arvizu suggests, to... Continue reading "Early Assemblies and the Curia Regia in Medieval Spain" »

The Crisis of 1640: Rebellions and Reforms

The reforms initiated by the Count-Duke of Olivares, favorite of Philip IV, sought to strengthen royal authority and achieve greater unity among the various kingdoms of the Spanish Monarchy. To this end, Olivares increased the tax burden and proposed the Union of Arms, which aimed to maintain a large army to consolidate Spanish hegemony in Europe. This policy mandated that all kingdoms of the monarchy (not just Castile, as previously) contribute men and money to the military effort. This provoked strong opposition, especially in the Crown of Aragon.

In 1640, discontent with the Count-Duke's policies erupted into two open rebellions: those of Catalonia and Portugal.

The Catalan Revolt (1640-1652)

The revolt... Continue reading "Spain's 17th Century Crisis: Rebellions, Decline, and Habsburg Fall" »

Factors Behind Totalitarianism's Rise

Several critical factors contributed to the emergence and expansion of totalitarian regimes during the interwar period:

• Economic Crisis: A widespread economic crisis gripped Europe after World War I, severely worsening following the Crash of 1929. This led to mass unemployment, ruined businesses, and devastated the middle classes across many countries.
• Fear of Socialist Revolution: The success of the Socialist Revolution in the USSR threatened European leaders. They feared the spread of revolutionary desires among the continent's working class and felt pressured by the demands of the proletariat.
• Weak Democracies: From the 1920s, totalitarian regimes were established in countries with nascent or fragile democratic