Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

Restoration of Ferdinand VII

One hundred thousand soldiers of St. Louis entered Spain, defeated the liberals, and restored Ferdinand VII as an absolute monarch.

The Absolute Bankruptcy (1823-1833)

There was a difficult economic situation due to the war against the French. The economy had greatly weakened, and fiscal reform was essential for the Treasury. It was necessary to obligate the privileged to contribute with their taxes. A dynastic conflict occurred because Ferdinand VII only had daughters, and the Salic law prevented women from reigning in Spain. To ensure the succession of his eldest daughter Isabel, he issued the Pragmatic Sanction, which overturned the old law.

The Carlist War

After the death of Ferdinand, his heir, daughter Elizabeth,... Continue reading "Restoration of Ferdinand VII and the Carlist Wars in Spain" »

6.4. The Catholic Monarchs and the Organization of the State: Institutions of Government. The Catholic Monarchs' political program was straightforward, aiming to strengthen royal authority, modernize the state, maintain the existing social hierarchy, and ensure religious unity. To achieve these goals, they improved existing institutions and made them function efficiently. The nobility retained its economic and social power, recognized by the Kings in the Laws of Toro (1505), but lost any previously granted privileges (income, taxes, land, annuities, etc.). The crown also recovered control of the military orders.

Government functions were organized around the Royal Council of Castile (or Council of Castile), which, reformed in 1480, became the... Continue reading "Catholic Monarchs: State Organization and Rule" »

The Commonwealth of Nations

In 1920, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the world's surface. Today, the empire has evolved into a voluntary association. This association, "the Commonwealth of Nations," was created after Britain's older colonies (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa) became independent. Now, Britain has only 14 dependent territories. The English Queen is the head of the Commonwealth, seen as Head of State in many other countries, but despite being the queen, she has little power. The modern Commonwealth includes republics and monarchies in addition to the states headed by the Queen.

Immigration to Britain

During the Empire, the colonies were administered by "civil servants" Britain sent to live in the colonies.... Continue reading "The Commonwealth and Immigration in Post-War Britain" »

The Social Conflict

The social movement of opposition in the 60s and 70s saw a significant increase in labor disputes in areas such as Asturias, Barcelona, Madrid, and Valencia. The Franco authorities considered any protest a problem of public order and responded with repressive methods. The UGT union had some illegal activity, while the CNT had disappeared. In 1964, the Workers' Commissions (CCOO), an independent democratic trade union, was born, promoting labor and political struggle. This organization combined illegal actions, such as strikes with notice, and participation in the elections for the Francoist trade union structure. In 1967, a group of trade unionists linked to the Young Christian Workers separated from the CCOO and founded... Continue reading "Social and Political Opposition to Francoism: 1960s-1970s" »

Causes of Independence

• Latin American cities grew, becoming disconnected from Spain.
• Middle classes were influenced by liberal ideas from the French and American Revolutions.
• Creoles were excluded from important colonial positions.
• Britain supported independence to access South American markets.

Process of Independence

The process was violent. Fernando VII refused any agreement. In Mexico, social unrest led by Morelos and Hidalgo resulted in an indigenous uprising. Clerics were executed.

In South America, major rebellions occurred in Nueva Granada and Buenos Aires, led by Bolivar and San Martin. They met in Guayaquil, after which San Martin withdrew, ceding to Bolívar.

Their goal of a unified South America failed due to regional differences. The Battle... Continue reading "Latin American Independence: Causes, Process, and Spanish Enlightenment" »

The Constitution of 1812

During the Peninsular War, Cádiz was the only Spanish city that resisted French control, aided by the British fleet. The *Junta Central* and Supreme Courts fled there. The process of electing deputies was difficult; in many cases, it involved choosing between people from each province who were in Cádiz. The liberal atmosphere favored the predominance of liberals in the new Cortes. The Cortes were unicameral, featuring only one chamber nationwide. They elaborated a liberal constitution with several key principles:

• National Sovereignty: Sovereignty resides in the hands of the nation.
• Unicameralism: The legislature consists of a single chamber.
• Indirect Universal Male Suffrage.
• Division of Powers: The legislature is in the

1. National Issues during Yrigoyen's Presidency

A nationalization project: The government's attempt to nationalize oil resources, presented as an anti-imperialist measure against large corporations. This involved creating a state oil monopoly and restricting land use by private companies.

The global economic crisis: Even before the 1929 Wall Street crash, Argentina experienced a sharp decline in prices, leading to economic shocks and exacerbating existing problems.

2. Ideological Differences Among Coup Leaders

Nationalists (led by Uriburu): Aimed to abolish elections and political parties, establishing a corporatist system.

Liberal Conservatives (led by Justo): Intended to restore the constitution and eliminate what they perceived as Yrigoyen's... Continue reading "Argentina's Political Turmoil: Yrigoyen to Perón (1930-1945)" »

US Imperialism in the Late 19th Century

Economic Factors

The rise of US imperialism was fueled by significant economic growth in the late 19th century. This growth, coupled with European protectionist policies, encouraged American expansion.

Ideological Factors

• Social Darwinism: This ideology, gaining traction at the time, promoted the idea that nations, like species, must compete for survival, justifying US expansionism.
• The Monroe Doctrine: This cornerstone of US foreign policy, articulated by President James Monroe, asserted American dominance in the Western Hemisphere and discouraged European interference.

The US began expanding its influence in the Pacific, targeting islands as potential markets for trade with Asia. This form of imperialism,... Continue reading "Rise of US Imperialism & European Demographic Shifts (Late 19th Century)" »

Imperialism

Imperialism was the first consequence of the Industrial Revolution. Industrialized countries imposed their dominance on new territories to expand their production and obtain raw materials.

Underlying Economic, Ideological, and Cultural Causes of Imperialism

Queen Elizabeth II

Ferdinand VII died in 1833, leaving his daughter, Elizabeth II, who was only 3 years old, as his successor. Absolutist parties supported Don Carlos, brother of the late king, leading to a civil war that would be recognized as the First Carlist War (1834-1839).

The Revolutionary Six Years (Sexenio Revolucionario)

Once Isabel II was dethroned, a provisional government and a constituent assembly were formed in 1869. This assembly widely recognized freedoms, including... Continue reading "Spanish and World History: 19th and 20th Centuries" »

1. Analysis of a Primary Source:

a) Source Type: This document is a primary source because the facts and details are contemporary to the events described. The author is reporting on events as they unfold.

b) Classification: It can be classified as a historical-circumstantial piece, reflecting the author's opinion and the historical events of the time. It is a newspaper article published during the Cold War.

c) Context: The document refers to the 1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary by Warsaw Pact forces, ordered by Khrushchev. The invasion was a response to Hungary's attempt to pursue an independent and sovereign policy, which the Soviets feared would cause a domino effect and destabilize the communist bloc. The Soviets used force to ensure that Eastern... Continue reading "Soviet Invasion of Hungary: 1956 Cold War Conflict" »