Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Tsarist Russia and the Path to Revolution

In Tsarist Russia, the Tsar held absolute power. The Duma, a parliament, existed but could be dissolved at the Tsar's will.

1905: Russo-Japanese War and Bloody Sunday

The Russian army suffered defeat against Japanese troops. On January 9th, a peaceful demonstration at the Tsar's Winter Palace was violently suppressed, resulting in Bloody Sunday. Workers organized into soviets (popular assemblies). The October Manifesto was signed but later violated by the Tsar.

World War I and the Fall of the Tsar

Russia entered World War I in 1914 unprepared, leading to numerous defeats. In 1917, widespread demonstrations and a general strike forced the Tsar to abdicate, leading to a provisional government.

The Bolshevik

Fascist Ideology

Fascism advocated for a totalitarian state that controlled all aspects of life. The state had complete oversight, eliminating individual freedom, equality, and rights, and rejecting the separation of powers. It supported a one-party dictatorship based on the principle of leadership. Fascism promoted a society founded on hierarchy, order, obedience, and authority. It was radically anti-communist and anti-capitalist, aiming for a national socialism that would eliminate class divisions. Aggressive nationalism, expansionism, and militarism were central tenets. Fascists were often racist, asserting the inferiority of people of color and the superiority of the Aryan race, which they believed had the right to subjugate other races.... Continue reading "Understanding Fascism and the Weimar Republic" »

Medieval Christianity: Faith and Society

During the Middle Ages, Christianity was the main religion in Europe. The Christian territories became known as Christendom. The Church affected all aspects of life.

Daily Life and Religious Practices

The rites of baptism, marriage, and death were carried out by the clergy. Christians had to go to church and pray every day. They also had to:

• Fast during Lent
• Attend confession
• Receive communion
• If possible, make a pilgrimage to a holy place to obtain eternal life.

Church bells regulated the peasants' working hours, and the calendar followed religious holidays. Years were counted from the time of Christ's birth.

The Church's Extensive Power

The Church held great social, political, and economic power. A significant... Continue reading "Medieval Christianity and Church Influence" »

The Spanish War of Independence

The disorganized nature of the initial resistance seemed to confirm forecasts that Napoleon's invasion would be quick and easy. However, the resilience of cities such as Girona, Zaragoza, and Tarragona, subjected to sieges by French troops, pinned down the French army and prevented progress towards the Levant.

Moreover, the defeat of the invaders in Bailén forced José I to leave Madrid, and much of the imperial army retreated north of the Ebro. Napoleon went to Spain in November to lead the counteroffensive. In January 1809, Joseph I returned to Madrid, and by 1809, French rule spread throughout Spain.

Guerrilla Warfare and Spanish Resistance

Resistance to the invasion was carried out by the guerrillas, small local... Continue reading "The Spanish War of Independence: Resistance and Ideologies" »

The Spanish Habsburgs and Their Validos

The seventeenth century was a time of profound political crisis in Spain. The Spanish kings of the House of Habsburg—Philip III, Philip IV, and Charles II—are often referred to as the 'Spanish Habsburgs' or 'Austrias'. Often perceived as weak or disengaged, these monarchs largely entrusted the government to their favorite nobles, known as validos or 'privados'. The valido held a political office akin to a prime minister, advising the monarch, supervising councils, and controlling government documents.

Philip III delegated power to the Duke of Lerma, who became notoriously corrupt and wealthy. Lerma notably moved the court to Valladolid (1600-1606) and oversaw the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1609.

Philip

Political Parties in the Second Spanish Republic

Following the proclamation of the Republic, a provisional government was formed. It represented all the forces that signed the Pact of San Sebastián:

• Liberal Republican Right: Alcalá Zamora (President), Miguel Maura (Interior)
• Radical Republican Party: Lerroux (State), Martínez Barrio (Communications)
• Republican Action: Azaña (War)
• Radical Socialist Republican Party: Marcelino Domingo (Education), Álvaro Albornoz (Development), Nicolau D'Oliver (Economy), Casares Quiroga (Navy)
• PSOE: Indalecio Prieto (Finance), Fernando de los Rios (Justice), Largo Caballero (Labor)

It was not a revolutionary government. The members were mostly middle-class men aware of the need to modernize the country, but supporters... Continue reading "Spanish Second Republic: Parties & Early Challenges" »

Regional Council

A body formed by the unification of various councils, boards, and committees to organize regional governments. These councils gathered the forces of the Popular Front. An example is the Sovereign Council of Asturias.

Juan Negrín

The last Prime Minister of the Republic during the Civil War. He was in favor of maintaining the fight until the commencement of World War II.

Manuel Azaña

Served as Minister of the Interim Government and was a reformist Prime Minister from 1931 to 1933. He later became President of the Republic from 1936 to 1939. He resigned and died in exile in 1940.

Committee on Non-Intervention

Driven by France, this committee was created in London in August 1936. Its stated aim was to prevent foreign intervention in... Continue reading "Spanish Civil War: Crucial Terms, Figures, and Events" »

Porguerra Ecnomus: The Situation: There were heavy losses and spending; the only exception was the U.S., which became the great industrial power. They had to resort to inflation, state intervention, and other measures that contradicted the principles of economic liberalism. The post-war unrest in Europe attempted to recover the normal pre-war economy.

Crisis of 1929: The U.S. was the best reflection of confidence in the future, experiencing a significant economic expansion. The population contracted credits and speculated on the New York Stock Exchange, aiming for profits. October 24, 1929, was Black Thursday on Wall Street. That year, several warnings generated suspicion among speculators, leading to a massive sell-off as everyone wanted to... Continue reading "Understanding Economic Crises and Their Impact on Society" »

Understanding Early American Colonization and Global Trade

Christopher Columbus

An Italian sea captain who initiated European contact with the Americas in 1492.

Colony

A territory or land controlled by another nation, often for economic or strategic benefit.

Hernán Cortés

A Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that conquered the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century.

Conquistador

Spanish soldiers, explorers, and fortune hunters who participated in the conquest of the Americas during the 16th century.

Francisco Pizarro

A Spanish conquistador known for his conquest of the Incan Empire in 1533.

Atahualpa

The last independent Incan emperor, famously captured by the Spanish conquistadors.

Mestizo

A term used in colonial Latin America to describe a person... Continue reading "Key Terms of Early American Colonization & Global Trade" »

Roman Britain: Conquest and Early Rule

Early Roman Expeditions

• Julius Caesar: Campaigns in 55 BC and 54 BC.
• Caesar was murdered in 44 BC.
• Indirect Romanization: Achieved through treaties, tribute, trade, elite exchange of luxury goods, and Roman education for chiefs’ sons.

The Claudian Invasion of 43 AD

• The invasion occurred in 43 AD under Emperor Claudius (in office since 41 AD, succeeding Caligula).
• The lowlands (approximately half of modern England) were easily invaded within four years of campaigning; three client kingdoms were respected.

Resistance Against Roman Rule

Boudicca's Rebellion (60-61 AD)

• Boudicca was the wife of the client king of the Iceni in what is now Norfolk.
• When her husband died, she was flogged and her daughters raped.
• Her rebellion