Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Key Historical Concepts

• Antisemitism

  Doctrine advocating rejection of all that has to do with Jews, including their race, culture, and social influence.

• Final Solution

  Hitler's decision during World War II to deport all Jews and Roma from Germany and conquered countries to death camps.

• New Deal

  A program that imposed greater state intervention in the economy.

• Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

  Land distribution to poor farmers without compensation to former owners, and recognition of minority rights.

• Spirit of Locarno

  Created a sense of euphoria that extended to other areas of life, such as the economy and society.

• Rural Exodus

  Migration from the countryside to cities in search of better living conditions.

• Division of Powers

  A political system that defends the

Colonial War and Crisis of 1898: The War of Cuba

The war in Cuba is at the heart of the actions of Canovas' Conservative government, until his assassination at the hands of the Italian anarchist Angiolillo. When the new Cuban insurrection began, Spain found itself isolated due to the political alliances designed by German Chancellor Bismarck. Because of this lack of international support, the Alfonsino regime could barely sustain the confrontation, first indirect and later direct, with the United States.

Independence Movement

The second war was inspired by Cuban independence advocate Jose Marti. The movement's social base was composed of the peasantry, the native bourgeoisie, and the popular classes. The Cuban Revolutionary Party boosted the independence... Continue reading "Colonial War: The Spanish-American Conflict of 1898" »

Rail and Steamboat in Britain and Europe

Rail and steamboat in Britain and Europe significantly improved traditional communication channels. Initially, railroads were used to transport ore from mines, with cars running on rails. Early improvements included a new system of iron rails and flanged wheels to keep the cars from leaving their lane.

Stephenson's invention of the locomotive enabled steam-powered railroads. The construction of the railway network in Europe greatly benefited the steel industry. Railroads shortened travel times, increased the safety of travel and cargo, and offered greater capacity.

Steam engines were also applied to maritime transport, with steamships replacing sailing vessels. The first steamers came into use in the United... Continue reading "Rail & Steamboat Impact: Britain & Europe 19th Century" »

The Crisis of 1917 in Catalonia

The crisis of 1917 involved three consecutive crises in the army, peripheral nationalism, and the working class during the summer of 1917. In June 1917, soldiers were upset by the promotion system that favored Africanists. They distrusted political parties and demanded a raise. This led to the creation of defense boards that put pressure on the government, which prohibited meetings and closed the Parliament, suspending constitutional guarantees.

In July, the National Assembly of Parliamentarians was created as a counterweight to the defensive boards. This initiative aimed to reopen the Catalan parliament and draft a constitution that considered autonomy. However, the entire Assembly was arrested after its second... Continue reading "Catalanism: Crises of 1917, Catalan Centre, and Regionalist League" »

Geopolitics

Examines how space is organized within societies.

Supranational Organizations

Examples include the United Nations and the European Union.

Subnational Entities

Comprising regional and local authorities.

The State

A set of institutions created to organize the life and activity of people who live in the same territory, governed by the same laws under one power.

Territory

Well-delimited borders distinguish it from other states and territories.

Population

People living within the state's territory, possessing rights and obligations that apply equally to all citizens.

Functions of the State

• Establishes laws regulating social relations among the state's population.
• Ensures compliance with laws through the judiciary.
• Maintains internal order and external

Marshall Plan: Europe's Post-War Reconstruction

The Marshall Plan involved the United States sending significant aid to Europe for its post-World War II reconstruction.

United Nations Security Council Explained

The United Nations Security Council, as described, featured five members with veto power over Assembly decisions, alongside six members elected every two years.

Popular Democracy: Post-WWII Socialist Regimes

Popular democracy refers to the political regimes established in new socialist states following the Second World War.

Iron Curtain: Europe's Symbolic Divide

The Iron Curtain defined the symbolic boundary that separated the Soviet Union and its satellite states from Western Europe.

Berlin Wall: Dividing a City Physically

The Berlin Wall was... Continue reading "Defining Key Historical Concepts: World War II & Cold War Eras" »

Cold War: Origins and Characteristics

The Cold War, a period of mutual distrust between the United States and the Soviet Union, emerged soon after their joint victory over Nazi Germany in World War II. Despite their temporary alliance, significant cultural and ideological differences fueled growing tensions. The United States' atomic monopoly and Soviet pressures on Eastern European governments, where communist regimes were established without popular consent, further exacerbated this distrust.

Ideological rivalry intensified through propaganda. The US was portrayed as the epitome of imperialism and exploitation, while the Soviet Union was depicted as a symbol of revolution, atheism, and tyranny. Anti-communism gained traction in Western political... Continue reading "Cold War Origins and UN Structure: A Historical Analysis" »

Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal

In 1932, during one of the worst years of the Great Depression, Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt won the presidential election. He proposed the New Deal, a comprehensive program designed to revitalize the economy through a series of economic and social reforms.

Key economic measures included:

• Assistance to businesses facing difficulties.
• Creation of public enterprises.
• Measures to control agricultural overproduction, including the destruction of agricultural stocks to stabilize prices.

The state also exerted control over banks, compelling them to provide low-interest loans. This encouraged employers to expand their businesses and create new jobs. These economic reforms were complemented by significant social reforms... Continue reading "Interwar Period Transformations: New Deal, Fascism, Weimar" »

American Revolution and Independence

The revolution and War of Independence of the 13 American colonies are the first chapter of the liberal revolution cycle.

Causes of the American Revolution

The causes include the Seven Years' War. The British government decided that the costs of this conflict should be paid by the American settlers themselves. This began a period in which the Assembly protested this situation. The government of the metropolis withdrew some taxes and implemented others. The monopoly on the sale of tea was given to the East India Company, which was detrimental to the merchants of the colonies. This caused the Boston Tea Party.

On the political side, these are enacted:

• Declaration of Human Rights in Virginia
• The Declaration of Independence

World War II: Origins and Key Events

A primary cause involved Germany's desire to regain its economic and military status, seeking to overturn the Treaty of Versailles. Italy wished to obtain territories, and Japan aimed to create a vast Asian empire. The global economic crisis exacerbated the problems of the future Axis powers, promoting their expansionist policies.

Hitler rearmed Germany, Italy pursued expansionist policies, and Japan declared war on China. Hitler became a dominant figure in Western Europe, annexing Austria and making demands on other nations. The alliance between Hitler and Mussolini solidified as the Rome-Berlin Axis. Germany also signed a non-aggression pact with Stalin, which secretly included plans for the partition of... Continue reading "World War II: Origins, Major Events, and Global Impact" »