Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Causes of World War I

Economic competition and regional rivalries between European countries in 1914 led to the First World War. The immediate trigger for the conflict was the assassination in Sarajevo of the heir to the Austrian throne, Franz Ferdinand.

Two major groups were formed:

• The Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, later the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria.
• The Allied Powers: France, Britain, and Russia, later joined by the United States, Italy, and Greece.

Development of World War I

The Western Front: Germany invaded Belgium, France, and Luxembourg, but the French managed to stop the advance.

The Eastern Front: The advance of the Central Powers was stopped by the Russian army.

USA Intervention in WWI

The U.S. declared war on Germany in 1917.... Continue reading "Key Events and Movements of the Early 20th Century" »

The government offered no resistance and formed a dimitio cabinet. Canovas communicated to the regency his proclamation as rey (king) for Alfonso. To restore the authority of the crown, Canovas appointed new monarchical governors and mayors and enacted a series of repressive measures against the opposition. He also re-established the concordat in its entirety and ensured the economic contributions of the state to the church. Canovas kept in touch with progressive and democratic leaders, wanting them to accept the monarchy.

The final campaign against the Carlists allowed their surrender in March 1876 (Somorrostro manifesto). Carlism had been defeated, but the problems associated with it remained unresolved. The end of the Carlist War allowed... Continue reading "The Spanish Restoration: Canovas and the Monarchy" »

The Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression

Causes of the Crash

The crisis in traditional industrial sectors was exacerbated in the years before the crash. The same happened in agriculture. Non-inclusive industrial sectors in 1927 experienced the consequences of decreased purchasing power of wages and falling incomes. The construction sector entered into crisis due to market saturation.

The Situation of Young People and the Sinking of the Stock Market

On October 24th, 13 million shares were offered for sale with almost no demand. Panic spread, and on the 29th, another 16.5 million shares were sold, collapsing the market. Stock values continued to sink until 1933.

The Great Depression

The collapse of the stock market led to a protracted crisis known... Continue reading "The 1929 Crash, Great Depression, and Stalin's USSR" »

Spanish Civil War: Major Campaigns & Turning Points

Madrid's Defense and Early War Struggles

For greater safety, the Republican government moved to Valencia. Madrid resisted thanks to the International Brigades and an anarchist column led by Durruti, where he died. The battles raged around Madrid, and the conflict grew in the north. Foreign aid flowed to both sides. Having failed to enter the capital, the rebels launched two maneuvers to isolate Madrid, especially targeting the Valencia road. The insurgents planned an attack to cut this off, leading to the Battle of Jarama, which featured intense dogfights. In Guadalajara, Italian forces sent by Mussolini suffered a significant defeat at the hands of the International Brigades.

The Northern

First Elections and the UCD Government

The first elections saw a majority for the UCD (Union of the Democratic Centre), led by Adolfo Suárez, with the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party), led by Felipe González, as the main opposition. Other significant parties included the PCE (Communist Party of Spain), led by Santiago Carrillo, and the AP (People's Alliance), led by Manuel Fraga.

The first UCD government took several key actions:

• It appointed a committee to draft a new constitution.
• It addressed the economic crisis by signing the Moncloa Pacts, aimed at modernizing the Spanish economy and increasing social security contributions.
• It implemented a tax reform.
• It decreed a second amnesty.

The 1978 Constitution

The 1978 Constitution established... Continue reading "Spain's Transition to Democracy: 1977-2004" »

The Regency of Maria Cristina (1885-1902)

Upon the death of Alfonso XII, his wife, Maria Cristina of Hapsburg, assumed the regency with the support of the dynastic parties. They signed the Pact of Pardo, agreeing to maintain the monarchy, rotate political power, and uphold legislative measures. Maria Cristina entrusted power to the Liberals, led by Sagasta, who governed between 1885 and 1890, a period known as the Long Parliament.

The Liberals implemented a program of liberalization, developing advanced reforms and consolidating the political system. They approved the Commercial Code and Civil Code (1889), aligning with the tenets of economic and political liberalism. Legal protection was extended to the burgeoning agrarian capitalism and landlordism.... Continue reading "Regency of Maria Cristina: Political Landscape and Opposition" »

Soviet Five-Year Economic Plans

The five-year plans for the national economy of the USSR were a series of nationwide projects focused on the centralized economic development of the Soviet Union. These projects were developed by the State Planning Commission (Gosplan) based on the theory of productive forces, which was part of the Communist Party's general guidelines for economic development. Fulfilling the plan became a key goal for the Soviet bureaucracy. These initiatives involved planning the national economy in five-year increments. Several five-year plans were not fully completed within their allocated periods; some were successfully finished ahead of schedule, while others failed and were abandoned.

Interwar Europe and the Crash of 1929

In... Continue reading "Soviet Economic Planning, the 1929 Crash, and Fascism" »

The Marshall Plan

• Marshall delivered a project to aid economic recovery in Europe.
• Marshall Plan Objectives:
  • Avoid the mistake of isolating the United States after the First World War.
  • Create a strong core of capitalist economies; this could curb the temptations of communism.
• The Marshall Plan provided aid credits to countries that benefited from it and was instrumental in their quick recovery.
• A prerequisite for inclusion in the plan was the acceptance of democracy and capitalism.
• The USSR and other Communist countries were left out, although in 1949, they founded the CMEA (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, also known as Comecon), a socialist economic cooperative body.

The Beginnings of the Cold War: The Korean War

• The Cold War marked international

María Cristina Messages

María Cristina Messages refer to the autonomic claims of bias given to Maria Cristina by members of the League in 1888, coinciding with the Governor's visit to Barcelona and Maria Cristina due to the Exposición Universal. This campaign for Catalan Civil Law had significant resonance throughout Catalonia.

Catalan Center

The Catalan Center was a Catalanist organization that emerged from Congress in 1882. It integrated both the Federalists and the moderate, apolitical group of the Renaixença. Its goal was essentially patriotic: the defense of Catalan particularity, avoiding political classification. Its secondment involved the Catalan bourgeoisie in the political project, aiming to create a power bloc that would displace... Continue reading "Catalan Nationalism: Key Events & Movements" »

The Republic in Catalonia: Recovery of the Generalitat

After the triumph of the Republicans and the exile of King Alfonso XIII, Lluís Companys proclaimed the new republic from the council. Francesc Macià proclaimed the Catalan Republic within the Iberian Federation of Republics from the Provincial Council.

Macià considered that the verbal agreements of the Pact of San Sebastián, signed by regional and republican parties seeking to end the monarchy, authorized the Catalan federation with the other peoples of Spain.

The Pact of San Sebastián organized a provisional government that did not accept the proclamation of the Catalan Republic because they believed the Courts should choose the republican model. The government in Madrid negotiated with... Continue reading "Catalan Republic: Proclamation, Statute, and Autonomy" »