Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

American and French Revolutions: Key Differences

The settlers quickly realized that the 1765 proposal was destined to fail. With the Declaration of Independence of 1776, they found it impossible to continue living as subjects of the British monarch and under the protection of the laws of the motherland.

Seeking a strong separation from England, the first part of the Declaration explicitly invokes the doctrine of individual natural rights and the social contract. These concepts, previously alien to the debate on rights within the British constitutional tradition's historicist model, were now crucial. It became necessary to proclaim the monarch a tyrant—the last, strong thread connecting the settlers to the mother country—and this spurred numerous... Continue reading "American vs. French Revolution: A Comparison" »

The Crisis of 1929: Causes

Overproduction

The war had fostered an incipient industrialization of the United States, outside of Europe. After the war, growth did not stop. The global total of agricultural and mineral raw materials increased by 11%. The global economy produced more than it could consume. Example: Due to the coffee crop in Brazil, coffee was taken in large quantities to the sea.

Capital Speculation

The policy of cheap money lending was fostered in the U.S. The Federal Reserve System provided money at a 5% interest rate. Banks withdrew it and paid 12% to stock market investors. When the New York Stock Exchange collapsed, it dragged down a large number of small banks, whose liquid assets had been used by private investors in loans.... Continue reading "The 1929 Crisis, WWI, Bolsheviks, and Stalin: Key Factors" »

Global Bipolarity and the Cold War

The post-World War II era saw the emergence of global bipolarity, primarily between two major blocs:

• The United States led the capitalist bloc, characterized by a free market economy, democratic governance, and extensive civil liberties.
• The Soviet Union led the socialist bloc, featuring an economy controlled by the state and significant limitations on human liberties.

Early Cold War Confrontations

The Civil War in Greece (1946) is often considered the first instance where the Cold War rivalry was overtly expressed.

The Marshall Plan

To aid European recovery and counter Soviet influence, the United States launched the European Reconstruction Plan, famously known as the Marshall Plan, named after George Catlett Marshall.... Continue reading "Cold War Bipolarity and Global Organizations" »

The League of Nations' Failure in Manchuria

The League of Nations demonstrated a significant weakness in its inability to prevent the Sino-Japanese conflict in Manchuria. A bombing attributed to a Chinese group on the South Manchurian Railway, under Tokyo's control as per the 1905 treaty, led to the complete occupation of Manchuria and the establishment of a puppet regime. Japan ignored complaints from both China and the League of Nations. The only penalty imposed was the non-recognition of the Japanese-backed state of Manchukuo. In response to the disarmament policies being promoted, Japan and Germany withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933.

The failure of the disarmament conference that year, attended by the United States, the USSR, Britain,

Spain's Path to Democracy

The law mandated general elections but required the legalization of all political parties. In early 1977, the right of political association was regulated, leading to the legalization of approximately 150 parties. International credibility for the elections hinged on this legalization, with the PCE's legalization posing a significant challenge.

After negotiations, particularly with Santiago Carrillo, President Suarez legalized the PCE on April 9, a move seen as courageous and decisive for Spanish reconciliation. This decision caused unrest in the military, leading to the resignation of the Marine minister. General elections, the first since February 16, 1936, were called for June 15, 1977.

The elected Parliament, initially... Continue reading "Spain's Transition to Democracy: Key Events and Constitution" »

Development Causes Totalitarianism: Liberal System Failure

Several factors contributed to the rise of totalitarian regimes in the early 20th century, highlighting a perceived failure of liberal systems:

• Policy: Government instability resulting from the struggle between parties.
• Economic: The economic collapse of European countries following the U.S. crisis led to a dramatic rise in unemployment.
• Social: Ex-combatants returning from the war and the unemployed found work, swelling the ranks of paramilitary organizations.
• Nationalism: Nationalists never ceased ethnic and border conflicts. These conflicts led many countries to question the liberal system and implement autocratic systems.

Fascist Italy

Despite being on the winning side of World War I,... Continue reading "Rise of Totalitarianism: Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany" »

France's Interwar Challenges and Resilience

The French Republic also suffered the impact of the First World War, to an even greater extent than Britain. France had dedicated more human and financial resources to the conflict, leaving the country deeply in debt. France underwent dramatic moments until 1924, then experienced a period of prosperity. However, after the crisis of 1923, it suffered a serious economic and social depression. France successfully prevented the establishment of authoritarianism thanks to the following factors:

• A Mixed Electoral System: Candidates who obtained an absolute majority in each constituency were elected automatically. This system encouraged the formation of coalitions before elections, with the intention of achieving

The France of Napoleon Bonaparte

Initially, Napoleon shared power, but in 1802, he was declared sole consul for life. A new constitution established a strong executive, limited suffrage to the wealthy, and nullified the Bill of Rights. He also joined the royalists in their schemes with measures like the return of emigrants and the restoration of Catholic worship through a Concordat. Napoleon gradually accumulated power until, in 1804, he was crowned emperor. He addressed the creation of new institutions and reforms to consolidate the principles of 1791. He developed a Civil Code, a Commercial Code, and a Criminal Code that sanctioned equality before the law, property rights, individual freedom, conscience, and work, as well as free access to... Continue reading "Napoleon Bonaparte's France and 19th-Century European Revolutions" »

Inquisition and the Alhambra Decree

The Inquisition was an ancient ecclesiastical tribunal established to prosecute crimes against the faith. It originated in France in the 12th century and later spread to Spain.

The Alhambra Decree was a decree published by the Catholic Monarchs, in which Jews were forced to convert to Catholicism or be expelled.

Capitulations of Santa Fe and Explorers

The Capitulations of Santa Fe was a document signed between the Catholic Monarchs and Christopher Columbus regarding his expedition to the Indies. Columbus was appointed admiral, viceroy, and governor of the discovered territories and was entitled to 10% of the wealth he found.

• Hernán Cortés: Spanish explorer and conquistador who defeated the Aztecs and conquered

The Proclamation of the Republic and Constitutional Period

Elections and the Provisional Government

On April 12, 1931, municipal elections were held by universal male suffrage. On April 14, elected council members proclaimed the Republic, and King Alfonso XIII decided to give up and relinquish royal power in the country. In Madrid, representatives of various parties formed a provisional government and proclaimed the Second Spanish Republic. This government immediately called for constituent parliamentary elections and enacted a series of urgent measures. The new Republic's promises garnered widespread popular support, but also faced animosity from large landowners, the financial oligarchy, parts of the Army, and the Church. The general elections... Continue reading "The Second Spanish Republic: Foundations and Political Landscape" »