Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

The Restoration (1815-1848)

After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the victors decided to return to the situation before the French Revolution. Thus began the Restoration, a period that lasted until 1848 and had these characteristics:

• A conservative and counter-revolutionary ideology based on the principles of tradition, authority, and religion, *against* the Enlightenment ideals of freedom and reason. It was considered that Enlightenment ideals lead to revolution and anarchy. A major proponent of this ideology was Britain's Edmund Burke.
• A complete rearrangement of the map of Europe, held at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815).

The Congress of Vienna

In this international congress, Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, under the leadership of Prince... Continue reading "European Restoration and Revolutions (1815-1848)" »

The Second Republic's Genesis

Following King Alfonso XIII charging Admiral Aznar with forming a government, municipal elections were called for April 12, 1931. The republican victories led to the proclamation of the Second Republic. This stage saw significant political atomization and increasing radicalization.

Political Landscape of the Second Republic

The political spectrum was highly fragmented:

Right Wing

• Bloque Nacional: Led by Calvo Sotelo, representing monarchist interests, large landowners, and the bourgeoisie, with fascist affinities.
• Carlists: Supporters of the old regime, led by the Count of Rodezno.
• Renovación Española: Monarchist party.
• CEDA (Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas): Led by José María Gil-Robles, representing

Context: 17th and 18th Century England

The political and social events that occurred in England during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries culminated in the union of Scotland, creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain, a great economic and political power. Differing from the rest of Europe, while the continent endured rebellions and absolute monarchies, England experienced two revolutionary processes that ultimately prevailed:

The First English Revolution

During the reign of Charles I, a confrontation arose between Parliament and the absolute monarchs over control of the powers of the State. In 1625, Charles I ascended the throne, leading to economic conflicts due to increased taxes, political clashes between the King and Parliament, and... Continue reading "English Revolutions: 17th & 18th Century Political Shift" »

Consequences of World War II

Changes in the Map of Europe

Victorious countries established new frontiers for defeated states. The main beneficiary was the Soviet Union, which gained territory at the expense of Germany, Finland, Poland, and Japan. Other countries also experienced border changes.

Creation of the United Nations

Another consequence of World War II was the creation of the United Nations, following the failure of the League of Nations.

Impact on Civilians and Soldiers

The war resulted in a great loss of life, along with many wounded and maimed individuals, creating a significant economic burden. Those who survived faced hardships and poverty. Both soldiers and civilians were traumatized by the brutalities they witnessed and endured.

The

Imperialism: Economic Expansion

Economic expansion from 1880 onwards by Western European powers, the United States, and Japan into territories beyond their national borders. This often resulted in territorial occupation, known as colonialism.

Utopian Socialism

Aimed at an ideal society based on community, equality, and non-violence. Key thinkers included Saint-Simon, Fourier, Proudhon, Cabet, Blanc, and Owen.

Chartism (1838-1848)

A working-men's movement in Great Britain, led by Lovett and Place. The People's Charter demanded:

• A 10-hour workday
• Higher wages
• Job security
• Universal suffrage

Chartists sought political representation and reforms to address issues like "rotten boroughs" (depopulated electoral districts).

Lockout

The closure of factories by... Continue reading "19th Century European History: Imperialism, Socialism, and Revolutions" »

Spain's Accession to NATO

Following a significant political regime change, Spain was able to join the European Economic Community (EEC). During the dictatorship, requests to join were declined. Spain's entry into NATO was considered crucial for the defense agreement. Almost all Western European countries were NATO members. Adolfo Suárez expressed his desire to join both organizations, but his term prioritized the consolidation of democracy and internal policy.

With Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo's arrival to power, Spain initiated the process to enter NATO, culminating on May 30, 1982. The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), initially in favor of neutrality and a referendum on the matter, faced significant public opposition. However, the PSOE later... Continue reading "Spain's Transformation: NATO, EU, and Societal Shifts Since 1980s" »

The Regime of the Restoration (1874-1902)

The political system of the Restoration is absolutely linked to the figure of Antonio Cánovas del Castillo. He favored keeping the old Bourbon and liberal anti-democratic system based on census suffrage. He defended the idea of shared sovereignty between the King and Parliament, at an intermediate point between the Old Regime and the democratic monarchy of 1869.

He was aware of the need for renewal:

• Alfonso XII was to replace the unpopular Isabel II. Cánovas got the Queen to relinquish her claim to the throne in 1870.
• There was a need to stop the ongoing military interventions.
• There was a need to create a two-party system based on two bourgeois parties that were taking turns in power: the Conservative

Former Allies: Capitalism vs. Socialism

Following the removal of fascist powers, two dominant ideologies remained in the Western political landscape: capitalism, spearheaded by the United States, and socialism, led by the USSR during the 19th century.

• Capitalism, adopted by many countries including America and Japan, was based on private property, free trade with minimal state intervention, and a liberal-democratic system characterized by class differentiation, parliaments, and elected governments.
• Socialism, or Communism, as practiced in the USSR, diverged significantly. It rejected private property, embraced a state-controlled economy, and aimed to eliminate social classes.

Both superpowers sought to expand their influence, leading to a period... Continue reading "Cold War: Origins and Development of US-USSR Tensions" »

Spain's Transition to Democracy

Introduction: The transition period in Spain's history began with Franco's death in 1975. The electoral victory of the PSOE marked a move towards a fully democratic society. A key feature of this period was the political groups' commitment to "consensus."

Arias Navarro's Government

Following Franco's rules, Juan Carlos de Borbon swore allegiance to the principles of the National Movement. Arias Carlos Navarro was confirmed as prime minister and appointed a cabinet to give an appearance of openness. However, these months were marked by great conflict. The Arias government responded with harsh repression, while the Platajunta called for amnesty, freedom of political association, general elections, and a constitutional... Continue reading "Spain's Transition to Democracy: Key Events & Political Shifts" »

The Divine Law

The central axis of the political system of the Ancien Régime was absolute monarchy by divine right. The monarch's authority came from God, who was in power. The state was controlled by the monarch, who concentrated all power and had absolute authority. Furthermore, the arbitrariness of the state was the norm. The most significant example of absolutism was the French monarchy of the Bourbons (Louis XIV). It arrived in Spain in 1700 by the hand of Philip V. All power resided in the monarch, and some advisory institutions existed. The main governing body was the Council of State, whose members were appointed by the king and was divided into sections: Board of Finance, Justice, War. It was also customary to designate a Secretary... Continue reading "Ancien Régime and Enlightenment Critique" »