Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Franco Regime: 1939-1959

The Franco dictatorship, which began after the Civil War, had several characteristics: totalitarianism, inspired by the Italian fascist model; warlordism, with Franco as Caudillo of Spain, Head of State, Prime Minister, Generalissimo of all armies, and national party chief; a unitary and centralist conception of the state; the repression of opposition; and control of the media.

Pillars of the Regime

The main pillars of the Franco regime were the army, the single party (Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS, or FET de las JONS), and the Catholic Church.

• The army was the most significant support of the regime and actively participated in power, as most ministers and provincial governors were military personnel.

The Spanish Civil War

The Siege of Madrid

In the summer and autumn, General Mola attempted to take Madrid from the northeast. However, his forces were detained at the pass by the Republican Army of the Sierra de Guadarrama. There was an attempt to retake the capital in the Battle of Jarama, but after thousands of deaths, the Nationalist Army was defeated in its objectives. In the Battle of Guadalajara, the Nationalist Army was defeated by the Republicans, with thousands of Italian soldiers killed.

The city of Madrid was defended by a defense council led by General Miaja. General Franco, upon receiving permission to take Madrid, diverted his forces to liberate the Alcázar of Toledo. This delayed the advance on Madrid for three years. Finally,... Continue reading "Spanish Civil War: Key Battles and International Impact" »

Development of Conflict: War, Trench Warfare, and Movements
Germany and Austria-Hungary possessed powerful armies and benefited from geographically dispersed enemies, allowing for easier communications. However, a two-front war was required for a swift victory. Conversely, the French and British naval blockade could isolate them. The German plan involved a rapid strike against France, advancing through Belgium and Luxembourg. France was expected to capitulate, enabling the Central Powers to focus their efforts on the Russian front. Germanic armies advanced into France, invading Belgium unopposed. In September 1914, German forces were within 40 miles of Paris. The French armies managed to halt the German advance at the Battle of the Marne. The... Continue reading "World War I: Trench Warfare and Shifting Fronts" »

That should already be sufficient to ensure order and to prevent possible riots (popular or Carlist), recalling that "the insurgency is no longer a right from the time when universal suffrage without appeal to the barbaric use of weapons."

The text continues with the first plans of the Republic: universal suffrage, stressing the elimination of the illegalities that were committed previously to falsify the elections as "coercion, deception, violence, and fraud" (done many times before with the help of their own governors).

Conclusion

The text is entirely subjective, as it tries to spread Republican ideals and show in what respects it improves over other ideologies that have failed before. We know its authenticity not only because it was written... Continue reading "First Spanish Republic: Origins, Ideals, and Impact" »

Military Organizations of the Cold War

After dividing the world into two blocs, the following military organizations were created:

• NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): Formed by Western Bloc countries, including the USA, Canada, UK, France, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg, Italy, Portugal, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland.

Greece and Turkey joined in 1952, and Spain in 1982.

The entrance of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1955 led to the creation of the Warsaw Pact.

• Warsaw Pact: Created in 1955, it comprised Eastern Bloc countries such as East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria.

Besides these two main blocs, other organizations also existed.

Early Stages of the Cold War (1948-1953)

• Czechoslovakia: The confrontation between

Causes of World War I

Political & Territorial Causes

France and Germany endured the dispute over Alsace-Lorraine, fueled by French nationalist revindications against Germanization attempts. Additionally, Poland, divided between Austria, Prussia, and Russia, saw Polish nationalists demanding independence. The conflicting interests of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires also played a significant role. Furthermore, the demarcation of borders for Albania and Greece raised the question of strait control. Finally, colonial rivalries, driven by Germany's desire for a new division of the world, clashed with the British Empire.

Economic Factors

International capital movements led to confrontations between countries, influencing political decisions.... Continue reading "Understanding World War I: Causes and Characteristics" »

The Second Spanish Republic: Political Transformations (1931-1936)

The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)

The Reformist Biennium aimed to establish democracy and modernize Spain's economy and society. Key objectives included:

• Establishing a democratic system.
• Modernizing the economy.
• Reforming society.

Major Reforms of the Reformist Biennium

• Military Reform

  The Military Reform introduced a Retirement Law, encouraging voluntary retirement and reducing the number of officers and soldiers. It also invalidated promotions granted between 1923 and 1930 and eliminated military academies like those in Toledo and San Gregorio.

• Educational Reform

  Educational reforms focused on secularization:

  • Separation of Church and State.
  • The Church lost state financial aid.
  • A ban

Aristophanes: Master of Ancient Greek Comedy

Athenian dramatist Aristophanes is considered one of the greatest writers of comedies in the history of literature. His works have been performed over the centuries, and his wit, humor, and poetic language have secured a lasting popularity.

Life and Background of Aristophanes

Aristophanes, the son of Philip, is believed to have been born in the outskirts of Athens. He likely received a good education and may have owned land on the island of Aegina. He had three sons—Philip, Araros, and Nicostratus—all of whom became comic poets.

Aristophanes' Political and Philosophical Views

Aristophanes was known for his conservatism. He favored monarchy over democracy and upheld established philosophical and theological... Continue reading "Aristophanes: Ancient Greek Comedy and Satire" »

The Spanish Constitution of 1931

The 1931 Constitution established a separation of powers, although priority was given to Parliament. Parliament had the power to control the government's actions, and even consisted of the President of the Republic. In contrast, the President had very limited powers. Finally, the Constitutional Court was established to ensure the legality of laws enacted by the government.

Another important aspect was the Church-State separation. Key features included:

• The definition of Spain as an integral state compatible with the autonomy of municipalities.
• Castilian as the official language.
• Finally, abandoning war in its external relations.

The most controversial aspect was its anti-clerical stance. Freedom of worship, the abolition... Continue reading "Spanish Constitution of 1931 and the Second Republic" »

Key EU Treaties: SEA, Maastricht, Amsterdam, Nice

The founding treaties of the European Union were amended with two distinct purposes:

• Horizontal Extension: To increase the number of Member States.
• Vertical Extension: To increase the number of powers transferred to the communities.

A major reform in this regard resulted from two pivotal treaties, effectively forming a single, comprehensive reform: the Single European Act (SEA) of 1986 and the Treaty on European Union (TEU) of 1992. This period marked a significant turning point for the European Union. These treaties not only increased and strengthened the powers of economic integration but also introduced political cooperation, all wrapped up in the newly formed EU. This represented a substantial... Continue reading "Evolution of the European Union: Key Treaties and Enlargements" »