Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

RENAISSANCE

The universalist spirit that characterized Europe in the thirteenth century became fragmented during the fourteenth century and disappeared during the fifteenth. In newly created universities across Europe, an attitude of critical thinking developed, replacing the ideals that the Church had provided during the early Gothic period. But fundamentally, the rapidly developing mercantile and industrial bourgeoisie determined the new interests of society.

This new society was not only forgetting the faith and enthusiasm that had led previous generations to build cathedrals, but also considered that the artistic language characteristic of the thirteenth century no longer made sense.

The incipient humanism that emerged with the early Gothic... Continue reading "The Renaissance: Origins and Italian Influence" »

The Spanish Constitution of 1931

The first step of the new government, headed by Manuel Azaña, was the drafting of a constitution, leading to 1931, whose principles were:

• It defined Spain as a "democratic republic of workers of all kinds," organized in a system of "freedom and justice."
• Proclaimed equality before the law and gave a comprehensive statement of rights.
• The state was unique but admitted possible regional autonomy.
• Recognized private property, although it admitted the possibility of compensation prior to expropriation, provided that the national interest demanded it.
• The courts acquired great power, both legislative and control over the government, and consisted of a single chamber elected by universal suffrage, also including women.

The Liberal Republic (1861-1891)

Aníbal Pinto G. (President)

• Allowed the entry of women to the University
• Secondary Education Act
• Faced regalist government positions
• International Economic Crisis
• Started the Pacific War
• Gave away Patagonia
• Home pacification of Araucanía

Domingo Santa María (President)

• Secular laws
• Cemeteries Lay Act
• Creation of civil registration and civil marriage
• Further extension of the law of incompatibility
• Gave away Patagonia
• End of the Pacific War

José Manuel Balmaceda (President)

• Founded the Catholic University
• Pedagogical Institute
• Civil War
• MOP Foundation
• Railroad construction
• Upgrading of roads
• Water supply

The Pacific War (War of the Pacific)

Causes

Economic: Seizing the rich nitrate zone (Peru, Chile, and Bolivia) to face the 1878 global... Continue reading "Chilean History: Liberal Republic, Pacific War, and Indigenous Rights" »

The Rise of Citizen Assemblies in Medieval Europe

In England, the presence of citizens and "ordinary people" in assemblies coincided with the achievement of freedom and the absolute failure of the first half of the thirteenth century. After the Magna Carta, King John summoned a meeting in Oxford, attended by representatives of the counties to discuss the affairs of the kingdom.

The turnout of people from cities to the curiae convened by the Kings is located in Western Europe at various times of the thirteenth or fourteenth century. They were present in 1188 at the meeting convened by Alfonso IX in Leon, where the king met with clergy, nobles, and citizens.

Why Did Alfonso IX Convene the Meeting of 1188?

Probably, as Professor Arvizu suggests, to... Continue reading "Early Assemblies and the Curia Regia in Medieval Spain" »

Factors Behind Totalitarianism's Rise

Several critical factors contributed to the emergence and expansion of totalitarian regimes during the interwar period:

• Economic Crisis: A widespread economic crisis gripped Europe after World War I, severely worsening following the Crash of 1929. This led to mass unemployment, ruined businesses, and devastated the middle classes across many countries.
• Fear of Socialist Revolution: The success of the Socialist Revolution in the USSR threatened European leaders. They feared the spread of revolutionary desires among the continent's working class and felt pressured by the demands of the proletariat.
• Weak Democracies: From the 1920s, totalitarian regimes were established in countries with nascent or fragile democratic

Venezuelan National Armed Forces

Overview

The National Armed Forces of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela comprise 157,000 to 189,000 men and women. Article 328 of the National Constitution establishes the following components:

• Army
• Navy
• Air Force (Aviation)
• National Guard
• National Militia

The armed forces' primary roles include defending national territory, airspace, and islands; combating drug trafficking; conducting search and rescue operations; and providing civil protection during disasters. While all male citizens are legally obligated to register upon turning 18 (the age of majority), military service is currently voluntary.

Army

The Venezuelan Army consists of approximately 120,350 personnel, including conscripts. Its main function is planning,... Continue reading "Venezuelan National Armed Forces: Structure and Roles" »

The Progressive Biennium (1931-1933)

The period known as the Progressive Biennium (1931-1933) marked a significant phase in the history of the Second Spanish Republic, characterized by ambitious social and economic reforms.

Economic Challenges and Stagnation

Spain was not severely affected by the Great Depression of 1929 due to its relatively closed economy; data from these years actually indicated an impasse. However, a stagnant economy proved insufficient to fund the ambitious reforms planned by the government.

Two factors significantly impacted the economic landscape:

• Global Economic Crises: Many foreign governments initiated protectionist measures, hindering international trade.
• Rising Unemployment: A clear and growing increase in unemployment

European Imperialism in Africa

British Cape-to-Cairo Ambition

The goal was to connect North and South Africa via the Cape-to-Cairo railway, aiming to dominate the eastern facade of the continent and control the Indian Ocean.

French West-to-East Expansion

France aimed to exercise dominion over a strip extending east-west, north of the Sahara (Morocco and Tunisia), and spread towards Sudan. This expansion would face the British.

The Berlin Conference

German Chancellor Bismarck convened an international conference in Berlin in 1884-1885, which was attended by 14 European countries to regulate European colonization and trade in Africa.

The Boer Wars in South Africa

The UK faced settlers from the Netherlands, called Boers (farmers), in South Africa. The... Continue reading "The Scramble for Global Dominance" »

Political and Economic Developments of the Franco Regime

1. The Postwar Period (1939-1950)

• a) World War II (1939-1945)
  • Foreign policy: (1939-1941) neutrality, (1941-1943) non-belligerence, sympathy towards the Axis, Blue Division, (1943-1945) neutrality.
  • Autarky (self-sufficiency), hunger.
  • Institutionalization of the Spanish courts law regime (1942), jurisdiction of the Spanish (1945).
• b) International Isolation (1945-1950)
  • Political: Withdrawal of ambassadors from Spain, Spain did not join the UN.
  • Economy: No commercial relationships with Spain, hunger.
  • Franco presents international isolation as a Judeo-Masonic conspiracy against Spain.
  • Institutionalization of the regime: The National Referendum Act (1945), Law of Succession (1947).

2. The Cold War and

Paris Peace Conference

In January 1918, U.S. President Wilson stated in the U.S. Congress his Fourteen Points, which he believed should govern a just and lasting peace. Its objectives were:

• Abolition of secret diplomacy.
• Freedom of navigation and international trade.
• Breakup of old empires.
• Creation of a Society of Nations.

But these principles were not fully respected, as the European Allies were more concerned with defending their own interests.

The Paris Peace Conference (1919-1920) produced five treaties stipulating the conditions of peace and new boundaries between the victors and the vanquished.

The Post-War Treaties

• Treaty of Versailles

  Signed on 28 June 1919 between the Allies and Germany. Germany's empire was split in two by the Polish Corridor.