Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

San Pietro in Montorio: Bramante's Masterpiece

Commission and Location

The Catholic Kings commissioned Bramante to prepare this work, intended to commemorate and mark the place where, according to tradition, Saint Peter was crucified. The temple, known as the Tempietto, is located in the cloister of a Franciscan convent on Gianicolo Hill in Rome. Its construction began in 1502.

The Architect: Bramante

Bramante's formation combined influences from both Brunelleschi and the architecture of Northern Italy. His work in Milan for the Sforza family defined his style until his move to Rome in 1499, where he came into direct contact with the great buildings of antiquity.

Formal Analysis

The building has a central plan, and all design follows a circular form.... Continue reading "Bramante's Tempietto: A Renaissance Masterpiece" »

Spain's Transition to Democracy After Franco

The Beginning of the Transition (1975)

The transition to democracy in Spain began in 1975, following the death of Francisco Franco. To facilitate this transition, two key groups emerged. King Juan Carlos I was appointed, not as his hereditary title dictated, but because people believed he would usher in the end of Franco's dictatorship and establish democracy for all. Collaboration from the Spanish people was crucial to achieving this goal.

Social Unrest and Demands for Change

The populace was largely against the existing government, particularly the Arias Navarro administration. There was significant social unrest, highlighted by approximately 20,000 strikes in a single year. People demanded democratization,... Continue reading "Spain's Transition to Democracy After Franco's Death" »

The Announcement of Cortes

The Supreme Central Junta, unable to lead the war, dissolved in January 1810. Before dissolving, it initiated the process of convening a parliament for representatives of the nation, deciding on its organization, maintaining courts, and establishing a five-member regency. The Cortes opened in September 1810, and the liberal sector achieved its first victory by forcing the formation of a single chamber. They approved the principle of national sovereignty, recognizing that power resides in the citizens, represented in Parliament.

The Constitution of 1812

Promulgated on March 19, 1812, the constitution included a bill of rights for citizens:

• Freedom of thought and opinion
• Equality of Spaniards before the law
• Right of petition
• Civil

The Russian Revolution: From Tsarist Autocracy to the USSR

Tsarist Autocracy

In the Tsarist empire, the Tsar's authority was absolute. Its economy was the most backward in Europe. Political power was entirely in the hands of the government, ruling by decree without a constitution or parliament. A vast bureaucracy, a powerful Orthodox Church, and the army dominated the empire. Land ownership was concentrated in the hands of the privileged aristocracy, and the peasant population was subjected to a near-feudal system.

Some parts of the empire experienced industrial development driven by foreign capital, leading to the emergence of an industrial proletariat. These workers, influenced by Marxist ideas, founded the Russian Social Democratic Party, which... Continue reading "Russian Revolutions: February & October" »

The Carolingian Empire

From Frankish Kingdom to Imperial Power

The Franks, originating from the Rhine region, settled in Gaul after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Clovis I united the Gallic peoples and the Franks, defeating the Visigoths at the Battle of Vouillé and entering Hispania.

Charles Martel's victory against the Muslims at the Battle of Poitiers halted the Islamic invasion into Europe. His son, Pepin the Short, founded the Carolingian dynasty.

The Reign of Charlemagne

The Carolingian Empire flourished from the 8th to the late 9th century, with Charlemagne, son of Pepin the Short, as its architect. Charlemagne's expansionist policies extended the empire across the Iberian Peninsula, Gaul (modern-day France, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg,... Continue reading "The Carolingian Empire: Rise, Reign, and Legacy" »

The Second Spanish Republic: A Concise History

The Proclamation of the Republic occurred on April 14, 1931, after Alfonso XIII lost the support of the proletariat. This followed the Pact of San Sebastian, where Alcala Zamora was not in government.

In Catalonia, the Esquerra Republicana dominated the government. Agreements such as the Estatut de Núria were approved, including opposition to the Spanish right, approval of the final text, and a reduction of power in the approval of the 1931 Constitution. Francesc Macià, the Republican President of Esquerra, implemented economic, educational, linguistic, and territorial measures, and the Law of Bases was approved in 1934 (health).

The Constitution of 1931 (Biennium d'Esquerres 31-33) aimed to incorporate... Continue reading "Second Republic of Spain: Key Events and Political Forces" »

Ancient Middle Eastern country, east of Mesopotamia, on the present territory of Iran.

The Persians were a people attached to the group of Aryans, all nomadic tribes whose original location probably lay in the plains of southern Russia and Ukraine. Roughly between 2000 and 1800 BC, the Aryans began their migration: some moved to the Indian subcontinent, while others directed their steps towards the west through Iran and penetrated into northern Mesopotamia and Syria. Around 1400 BC, a third group of Aryans that would include the Persians moved inland from the northwest of Iran.

The family belonged to the Persian language branch of the Indo-Europeans and settled in Iran, neighboring the Asian plateau of Mesopotamia (Daniel Serebrennik) midway... Continue reading "Ancient Persia: History, Culture, and Legacy" »

The Constitution of 1837

The Constitution of 1837 Following the death of Fernando VII in 1833, his young daughter Isabel, under the regency of his wife Maria Cristina, took over Spain. During this regency, the power of liberal groups, both progressive and moderate, fluctuated. The progressive government, formed in September 1836, immediately convened special courts to decide on the restoration of the Constitution of 1812 or the creation of a new one. After nearly a year of discussions, Parliament approved a new Constitution on June 8, 1837, which was signed by Elizabeth II on November 17. This constitution consists of 13 titles, with a total of 77 articles, plus two additional ones. The new constitution embraced the principles of doctrinaire... Continue reading "Spanish Constitutions of 1837 and 1869: A Comparative Analysis" »

The Formation of Al-Andalus (711): In 711, a Muslim army composed of Arabs and Berbers entered the Iberian Peninsula, taking advantage of the internal conflicts among the Visigoths. The decisive battle took place near the Guadalete River, where the Muslim army defeated the last Visigothic king.

After this victory, the Muslims occupied almost the entire peninsula, naming the conquered territory Al-Andalus.

Political Developments (711-1492)

Al-Andalus went through several phases from the initial invasion in 711 until 1492:

• Dependent Emirate of Damascus (Umayyad Caliphate): Al-Andalus was initially dependent on the Umayyad Caliphate, with its capital in Damascus. During these years, the Muslims continued to occupy the peninsula, except for some northern

Causes of World War I

European Rivalries

The enmity between France and Germany started with the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, where France lost Alsace and Lorraine. Germany became the leading power on the continent, reaffirmed by the formation of the Triple Alliance. The European balance of power depended on the British. Economic and political differences between Britain and Germany grew, and Germany began a policy of naval construction. The Triple Entente alliance would become a major military force in Europe. The great European states initiated an arms race to increase their military potency. The great powers were preparing for war.

The Balkan Conflict

The Balkan conflict was caused by the clash of interests between Austria-Hungary and Russia.... Continue reading "Causes and Development of World War I: 1914-1918" »