Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

1756 – 1763: Seven Years' War

It was a global war with varied effects. East American colonies were restricted from westward expansion, while French colonies had the opportunity to expand west. This disparity was a significant cause of the war.

The French were defeated, and their territories were taken by England.

The victory was costly. To recover, England imposed taxation, notably the Stamp Act, which taxed legal documents in the colonies. The colonies protested, arguing against taxation without representation in Parliament. Violent reactions, such as in Boston, ensued. England maintained taxes on certain products, like tea.

In 1773, The Boston Tea Party occurred. Citizens of Boston, disguised as Mohawks, threw tea cargo into the sea.

England... Continue reading "Seven Years' War, American Revolution & Industrial Revolution" »

The Railway Revolution in Britain

During this period, the development of the railway was profoundly important. It contributed to maintaining peace and diminishing unemployment rates, as railways employed individuals who were at an age when finding work was typically difficult; these workers were known as “navvies”. By 1851, there were already 10,000 km of open tracks operating, making Britain the first nation in the world to possess such an extensive railway network. However, the construction of these tracks was very expensive and required significant land acquisition.

Societal Transformations Driven by Railways

This extensive construction provoked significant changes in people’s lives:

• Changes in Daily Life: The Phenomenon of Commuting
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The Late Victorian Era: Society and Education (Second Half of the 19th Century)

During the second half of the 19th century, British society was deeply divided and imbalanced. On one hand, there was the Great Famine in Ireland, while on the other, powerful elites held sway. For example, in the field of education, only 8% of all children in the United Kingdom received secondary education. Yet, this was also the golden age of public schools such as Rugby, Eton, Winchester, and others. These elitist schools were entirely private and served as the primary educational institutions for the elite. These public schools played a very important role, and this continues to be the case today. With the exception of John Major, all British prime ministers... Continue reading "Victorian Britain: Society, Education, and Imperial Expansion" »

European Powers in Africa

If you look at the map, you see that there are two dominant powers: there is a horizontal line to the North, where the French were, and a vertical line in blue, which corresponds to British dominion. That is what explains a caricature of Cecil Rhodes—who gave name to Rhodesia—in which he appears above the African map.

Germany's Ambitions

The third colonial power was Germany, which was fast becoming an industrialized area. By then, Germany was trying to establish a railway line joining Berlin and Baghdad, which contains the biggest oil reservoirs. Therefore, that is why they had interest to build this railway line.

British Dominions and Boer Republics

If we concentrate on the South, we see primarily British dominions... Continue reading "Boer Wars: Diamonds, Gold, and Imperial Conflict" »

The Vietnam War

Many people in South Vietnam resented the government, which led to the Viet Cong.

The Viet Cong fought to overthrow the South Vietnamese government with help from North Vietnam.

The new US president, Lyndon Johnson, was determined to keep South Vietnam communist-free.

However, the war was very difficult for the Americans. It ended in 1975 when Saigon fell to the Viet Cong, and the USA left.

The Treaty of Versailles

In early 1919, the Allied leaders met in Versailles, France, to agree on a peace treaty. Britain, the USA, and France all attended. Germany was not invited.

The USA and Britain were not so sure about the terms.

Aims of the Treaty:

• To reorganize Europe
• To establish the culprits of the war
• To find a system to maintain the peace

Terms

The Austro-Prussian War (Second Stage)

During this period, Franz Joseph I of Austria (reigned 1848-1916) was the monarch. He presided over events that would eventually lead to major European conflicts, even in his old age. He was married to Empress Elisabeth of Bavaria. In 1866, Otto von Bismarck challenged the Austrians, leading to the Austro-Prussian War.

The Franco-Prussian War (Third Stage)

Bismarck needed a pretext for war with France. The immediate reason was the succession to the Spanish throne following the expulsion of Queen Isabella II. Germany had a candidate, but this was rejected by Napoleon III of France. Napoleon III sent a dispatch to King Wilhelm I at Ems, but this message was intercepted by Bismarck, who famously edited the "... Continue reading "Europe's 19th Century Transformation: Wars, Workers' Rights, and Ideological Shifts" »

A Nation of Immigrants

Native Americans

The first people to arrive in America came from Asia across the Bering Strait during a period of lower sea levels.

Reservations

Land set aside for Native Americans has historically faced challenges such as poverty and unemployment. Significant Native American populations reside in California, Oklahoma, and New Mexico.

British Influence

The American Revolution (1776) resulted in a blend of British and American cultures. Immigrants from the UK and Ireland played a significant role in shaping the early United States.

African Americans

Between 1620 and 1820, Africans were brought to America to work as slaves. In the South, they labored on plantations cultivating crops like cotton and tobacco. In the North, they worked... Continue reading "American Society: People, Politics, and Religion" »

Elizabeth II: Carlist Wars and Liberal Reforms (1833-1854)

The First Carlist War (1833-1840)

The First Carlist War occurred during the regency of Maria Cristina, although tensions between liberals and Carlists emerged earlier. The war is divided into three stages:

• The first stage began with armed outbreaks in Talavera and Valencia and ended with the death of the Carlist chief, Zumalacárregui.
• The second stage emphasized the Royal Expedition led by Carlos María Isidro, which ultimately failed.
• The third stage saw the division of the Carlists and concluded with the signing of the Vergara Agreement by the moderate sector and the defeat of the most radical faction in Cabrera (1840).

Liberal Divisions and the 1837 Constitution

The liberals were also... Continue reading "Elizabeth II Reign: Carlist Wars & Liberal Reforms" »

Crisis and Collapse of the Restoration System

The Triple Crisis of 1917

The failure of Maura and Canalejas ushered in an era of instability, culminating in the triple crisis of 1917 and the 1923 coup. Governments were weak and overwhelmed by problems.

World War I and Social Unrest: Spain's neutrality during World War I allowed for profitable trade with warring nations, tripling Bank of Spain reserves. However, this created social consequences:

• Unequal wealth distribution and increased social differences.
• Alarming inflation and doubled cost of necessities.
• Slow wage growth, reducing workers' purchasing power.

News of the 1917 Russian Revolution fueled unrest, leading to a general strike aimed at replacing the monarchy with a republic.

The government... Continue reading "Crisis and Collapse of the Restoration System in Spain (1917-1923)" »

The State: Definition and Key Elements

The State is a political unit that holds supreme authority within a defined territory and over its inhabitants. It represents the organized structure of a society, characterized by:

• Boundaries
• Population
• Laws
• Symbols

Territory and Population

A state possesses a defined territory with boundaries separating it from other states. The population comprises the citizens residing within this territory. A nation refers to a group of people sharing a common identity. The terms 'nation' and 'country' are often used interchangeably.

Government and Laws

States grant rights to citizens, while citizens have legal duties. Sanctions are in place to enforce these laws.

Powers of the State

A state has the authority to govern through... Continue reading "Understanding the State: Territory, Government, and Power" »