Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Political Systems: Old Regime vs. Liberalism

A comparison of the dominant political and social structures:

Causes of the French Revolution

Underlying Factors

• The structure of the Old Regime.
• Influence of Enlightenment Ideas.
• The Bourgeoisie resented being part of the Third Estate, bearing the burden of taxation despite their wealth.
• General Economic Crisis.

Specific Causes

• Short-Term Causes: Financial strain due to the war against the British and support for the 13 American Colonies.
• Long-Term Causes:
  • Unfair

The people, mostly *Criollos*, demanded that these meetings be open, not exclusively for colonial authorities. The establishment of the juntas marked the beginning of the movement towards independence.

Causes of Independence

• Latin American cities experienced significant growth, particularly large commercial centers and cities housing government seats or courts of law.
• The urban middle class embraced liberal ideas discussed in their newspapers. They were inspired by the French Revolution and the independence of the United States, admiring these nations while viewing Spain as a symbol of absolutism.
• *Criollos* felt marginalized by colonial authorities, as they were denied the most important government positions.
• Great Britain sought access to the

Authoritarian Regimes

Politics: Power was concentrated in the hands of a supreme leader and one ruling political party. Propaganda was used to spread the party's message and glorify the leader. There were no free elections, and other political parties were prohibited.

Economy: The state intervened in and controlled the economy. Public-works programmes were used to reduce unemployment, and trade unions were prohibited or controlled by the ruling party.

Society: The state limited rights and freedoms, and repressive measures were used against people who opposed or criticised the regime.

Foreign policy: These regimes pursued expansionist foreign policies to gain new territory and access to raw materials.

The Second Spanish Republic (1931-1939)

In April... Continue reading "Authoritarian Regimes & Spain's Second Republic: History" »

In 1936, the Republican Banco de España financed all the assistance received from Russia. 200 tons of gold were sent to France with the risk that General Franco’s troops would enter Madrid. A government decree ordered to transfer approximately 500 tons to Moscow. The directors of the Bank of Madrid transferred the gold reserves to Cartagena and then by sea to Moscow where they were used to defray the military assistance. These events were known for years as “the Moscow gold”.

1. The Banco de España during the Franco Regime (1939-1975)

After the war, the government set about the difficult task of restoring the country economically. The Banco de España and the financial system as a whole, should be subjected to its guidelines to bring... Continue reading "Spanish Central Bank History: Franco Era to European Union" »

Key Enlightenment Thinkers and Their Ideas

Voltaire

• Advocated for freedom of speech, press, and religion.
• Opposed monarchy, militarism, and slavery.
• Supported constitutional monarchy as a transitional step towards democracy.

Montesquieu

• Developed the theory of the separation of powers to protect people's rights.
• Significantly influenced Liberal Political Theory.

Mary Wollstonecraft

• Feminist activist and writer.
• Authored A Vindication of the Rights of Woman and A Vindication of the Rights of Men.

Immanuel Kant

• Wrote Critique of Pure Reason, a seminal work in philosophy.
• Developed deontology, a major ethical theory.

Mary Astell

• Championed social equality and choice for women in marriage.
• Advocated for equal education rights for women.

Claude-Adrien Helvétius

• Tax

Washington Irving – The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (1820)

At the time, in the decades following the Revolutionary War, the United States was in the process of constructing a national identity. Many Americans felt that the young nation lacked a cultural identity, as well as a national mythology and folklore.

Unreliability of Stories

One of Washington Irving's main messages in 'The Legend of Sleepy Hollow' is the need to question stories, whether they are legends that have been handed down, tales told among friends, or contemporary works of fiction and nonfiction. By using and explaining a complex framing device, Irving sets readers up to question the story's veracity. It is the story of Ichabod Crane as narrated by Diedrich Knickerbocker, who heard... Continue reading "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow: Unreliability of Stories and the Supernatural" »

Factors Leading to the 1905 Russian Revolution

• The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)

  The war for control of Manchuria was deeply unpopular in Russia. New taxes were imposed to finance the conflict, and Russia's defeat led to increased public hostility towards Tsar Nicholas II.

• The Emergence of Political Parties

  Despite being forbidden, various political parties emerged, all opposed to the Tsar's autocratic rule. This burgeoning opposition signaled the growing desire for political reform.

• Bloody Sunday and the 1905 Revolution

  In January 1905, industrial workers in St. Petersburg marched peacefully on the Winter Palace to petition the Tsar for improved working conditions and political reforms. The Tsar's troops fired upon the unarmed protesters, an event

Banco de España: Autonomy and Integration

In 1980, the Law on the Governing Bodies of the Banco de España granted the bank significant autonomy in its operations and monetary policy. In 1985, the Treaty of Accession to the European Economic Community was signed, and the Banco de España became a member of the Eurosystem.

The Ley Orgánica de Regulación de las Normas Básicas sobre Órganos Rectores de las Cajas de Ahorro was enacted, and a few years later, savings banks were given full freedom to expand nationally. These measures aimed for more democratic management but led to serious problems, evidenced by the disappearance of most savings banks during the previous financial crisis.

The Ley de Disciplina e Intervención Bancaria (1998) extended... Continue reading "Banco de España: Autonomy, Eurosystem Integration & Evolution" »

Evolution of Security Threats

Indeed, the 21st Century has seen a change in the types of threats. Threats include the proliferation of ballistic missiles, proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, terrorism, cyber attacks, attacks on communication and transport, the use of laser weapons, and electronic warfare. Member states are not at peace and face new security threats that are not stated in the 2010 Strategic Concept. The US and European member countries are facing terrorism threats, for instance. After Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, NATO returned its attention to Europe, and the member countries confronted their decline in defense spending. The Wales Summit in 2014 addressed these issues and the implementation of the biggest reinforcement... Continue reading "Evolution of Security Threats and Global Governance" »

NATIONALISM