Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The crisis of the Old Regime was influenced by several key factors and ideas, leading to significant political and social transformations.

Influences on the Old Regime's Crisis

The Enlightenment's Impact

The ideas of the Enlightenment challenged absolutism. They proposed that sovereignty resides in the people, particularly the emerging bourgeoisie.

Division of Powers in Practice

Putting Enlightenment ideals like the division of powers into practice aimed to replace the nobility as the dominant group, guiding liberal or bourgeois revolutions.

Early Liberal Revolutions

The first liberal revolutions included the American Independence, the French Revolution, and movements in Europe and the Spanish colonies in America.

Principles of the New Liberal Order

Liberal

Spanish Civil War: Uprising and Outbreak (1936)

The Spanish Civil War began with an uprising in Melilla in 1936. It quickly spread throughout the Protectorate of Morocco, and subsequently to the Peninsula and archipelagos. The government of Casares Quiroga reacted slowly. The main architects of the uprising were Generals Mola, Franco, and Sanjurjo. Franco moved from the Canary Islands to Morocco to take command of the Legion. After a plane crash that killed Sanjurjo, the National Defense Council was formed to direct the military operations of the Nationalist side.

Nationalist Successes and Failures

The coup succeeded in:

• Galicia
• Castilla-León
• Navarra (with General Mola in Pamplona)
• Western Andalusia (with Queipo de Llano in Seville)
• Balearic Islands

Agrarian Reform

The Agrarian Reform was initially applied in 1932 to the estates of southern Spain. It was later extended to the whole country. Small and medium landowners strongly opposed the reforms, which were implemented very slowly. The central government reform was not satisfactory for anyone.

Labor Reforms

These reforms were the work of Largo Caballero. They created a new framework for relations between employers and workers and established a labor law for the agricultural sector. The main measures were:

• The Law of Labor Contracts
• The Law of Mixed Juries
• The Law of Municipal Terms
• The Law of Compulsory Tillage
• The Law of Accidents in the Field
• The imposition of an eight-hour workday in agriculture

Other reforms, such as the Worker Intervention... Continue reading "Agrarian, Labor, Military, Religious, and Educational Reforms in Spain" »

The Birth of the USSR

The New Regime: First Steps

The Council of People's Commissars issued a series of decrees aimed to satisfy the main demands of the masses and win their accession. These included:

• The decree on the end of the war proposed a peace without annexations or indemnities.
• The decree on land expropriated land without agricultural contracts.
• The decree on industrial factories put under the control of workers and employees.
• The decree on the nationalities declared the right of peoples to freely dispose of Russia.

In January 1918, the Constituent Assembly met. Soviet power and the dictatorship of the proletariat would become the pillars of Bolshevik Russia. Gradually, the opposition was silenced. In July 1918, the Congress of Soviets adopted... Continue reading "USSR Birth & 1929 Stock Market Crash: Key Events" »

Prelude to Conflict

In 1898, Spain and the U.S. started a war for control of Cuba. It was a short war due to American superiority, but it had serious repercussions for Spain's dwindling empire. This crisis favored the emergence of cultural movements that criticized the Restoration period and sought political regeneration.

Cuban War of Independence

Cuba had been a Spanish possession since its discovery by Christopher Columbus. For Spain, it was the "pearl of the Antilles" due to its natural resources and strategic position. From the 19th century, it became the largest producer of sugar.

In the mid-19th century, changes occurred driven by the Creole aristocracy, as the profitability of slavery and the sugar monopoly declined, alongside issues with... Continue reading "Spain's 1898 Crisis: Cuban Independence & U.S. War" »

Family Policies and Power Dynamics in Franco's Spain

Within a complete subordination to the Leader, there were different families or groups with different political sensitivity, never parties, as in the Franco regime political parties were banned. Falange was only allowed, but defining it as a party was banned so that became known as the National Movement. Each family tried to influence the decisions of Franco, and the ability of this was to entrust parcels to conveniently measures, supported successively one family or another as appropriate at all times, moving from the foreground to those made uncomfortable by some internal or external reason and thus ensured their presence in power unchallenged. When a scandal broke out in some way be attributed... Continue reading "Franco's Spain: Family Policies and Power Dynamics" »

1. Discuss the Origins of the Cold War

Why did the US and the Soviet Union disagree so drastically on the formulation of the postwar world from 1945-1950? What were some of the main issues that divided the world into “two camps?”

The Cold War lasted from 1946, following the collapse of the anti-Hitler coalition and the establishment of an exclusive zone of Soviet influence in Central Europe, to the disintegration of the Soviet satellite states in 1989 and the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991.

Throughout this period, the confrontation between the two superpowers was fought on multiple fronts: military, ideological, psychological, and economic. The most important element was a technological arms race, including the reinforcement and... Continue reading "Cold War Origins: US-Soviet Tensions 1945-1950" »

The establishment of the Second Republic and the Constitution of 1931

Following Primo de Rivera's resignation in 1930, a growing decline of the monarchy was evident. The king appointed Prime Minister General Berenguer, who was to replace the constitutional system (1876 Constitution), which was unacceptable to the opposition, and save the figure of Alfonso XIII, associated with the dictatorship. On April 12, 1931, municipal elections were held to replace the councils of the dictatorship. Republican and Socialist candidates won in much of the country, demonstrating a rejection of the monarchy. Alfonso XIII relinquished real power and left Spain. On April 14, 1931, the Second Republic was proclaimed, establishing a provisional government headed... Continue reading "The Establishment of the Second Republic in Spain" »

Fragments of the Constitution of Cadiz: Text 2

Selection of articles from the Constitution of 1812, reflecting key features of a liberal state. This is a primary source of legal and political content.

The courts, in the absence of Ferdinand VII, decree and sanction the following (preamble):

• Hereditary Constitutional Monarchy (Art. 14)
• National Sovereignty (Article 3)
• Confessional state in the Apostolic Roman Catholic religion (Art. 12)
• Separation of Powers:
  • Executive Power: Resides in the King and the government (Art. 16)
  • Legislative Power: Resides in the courts with the King (Art. 17)
  • Judicial Power: Based in the courts (Art. 17)
• Bill of Rights and Duties:
  • The right to freedom of speech (Art. 371)
  • Duty to pay taxes (Art. 8)
• The Spanish nation is the collection

The Fall of Primo de Rivera's Dictatorship

Despite attempts to establish a new regime, Primo de Rivera faced widespread criticism, opposition demonstrations, and even military pronouncements. In a state of political isolation and after losing the support of Alfonso XIII, Primo de Rivera resigned on January 28, 1930. Alfonso XIII attempted to restore the old system of alternating governments (with Berenguer and Aznar), but after the municipal elections of April 12, 1931, the Second Spanish Republic was established.

The Rise of the PSOE

International Workers' Association and Early Influences

The International Workers' Association (IWA), founded in London in 1864, initially encompassed both Marxist and anarchist ideologies. However, after continuous... Continue reading "Primo de Rivera's Dictatorship and the Rise of the PSOE in Spain" »