Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

The Roaring Twenties

After World War I, the United States and Europe experienced economic growth. New York became the world's financial center. From 1923, increased production reduced unemployment and improved living standards. However, this period of expansion ended abruptly in 1929.

The 1929 Crash

The U.S. economy faced excessive credit dependence. Companies and consumers were encouraged to take loans, fueling production and stock market investments. The initial stock market downturns caused panic among investors, culminating in Black Thursday on October 24, 1929. The New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) collapsed, preventing shareholders from repaying loans and triggering a series of bank failures. Many people were financially ruined. The United... Continue reading "Interwar Period: Economic Crisis, Fascism, and Spanish Civil War" »

Franco's Spain: The Dictatorship (1939-1975)

Opposition to Franco's regime faced significant challenges. Internal dissent was minimal due to purges, imprisonment, or exile. The most organized opposition came from the PCE (Spanish Communist Party), which gained some traction among workers by organizing factory workers' committees. Neighborhood associations provided the only real avenue for political activity within the confines of the regime.

Stages of the Franco Regime

1939-1950: Autarky

In the aftermath of the Spanish Civil War, the government solidified its authoritarian rule and initially aligned with the fascist Axis powers. However, by 1942, its orientation began to shift. The postwar years were marked by widespread hunger. Economic hardship,... Continue reading "Spain Under Franco: A Historical Analysis of the Regime" »

Charles III Ruled in Spain Until His Death

Ancien Régime: Political, Social, and Economic Characteristics of the States Before the French and Industrial Revolutions (Late Eighteenth Century)

King = Ruler (executive, legislative, judicial)

• Absolute Monarchy: Concentration of powers, the king is the law and sovereignty of divine origin, subjects with no rights or freedoms.
• Stratified Society: Legal inequality, privileges by birth, privileged classes (nobility, clergy), non-privileged estates (Third Estate).
• Agricultural Sector: Land is the primary source of wealth and power. Nobility is honorable (economic and political power). The Third Estate has no privileges (peasantry, bourgeoisie).
• Business: The secondary source of wealth. The bourgeoisie has

World War I: A Phased Analysis

First Phase: War of Movement (1914)

The Germans implemented the Schlieffen Plan, which involved invading France through neutral Belgium. Before war was declared between France and Germany, the Germans occupied Luxembourg and invaded Belgium. This plan failed because the Germans had not anticipated Great Britain's entry into the war and Belgian resistance. On the Western Front, the rapid German advance forced the French to retreat to the vicinity of the Marne River. France launched a counteroffensive, initiating the Battle of the Marne. The French surprised the Germans, forcing them to withdraw. This battle marked an unexpected victory for the French army and led to a unique and unusual form of warfare: the war of

The War in Morocco: Development and Consequences

The Origins of Spanish Military Presence in North Africa

The origin of the Spanish military presence in North Africa can be traced back to the Franco-British agreements of 1904. Spanish colonial intervention in the Maghreb was the outcome of the game of alliances and competing interests between Britain and France.

• Britain wished, for geostrategic and economic reasons, to maintain control of the Strait of Gibraltar.
• France sought to extend its domination over the Maghreb, securing and expanding its position in Algeria.

The signing of the Anglo-French agreements of 1904 meant the resolution of old colonial diplomatic differences. According to this commitment, the English government would support the... Continue reading "Spanish Military Presence in Morocco: 1904-1923" »

Causes of World War I (1914-1918)

Colonialism and Nationalism

• Rivalry Between Colonial Powers: Conflicts stemming from imperial rivalries were particularly evident in Morocco (1905-1911). Germany, which had few colonies in the area, sought to challenge the influence of France and Great Britain. These tensions, while not directly triggering the war, remained latent and contributed to the outbreak of World War I.
• Nationalist Exaltation: The Franco-Prussian War (1871) resulted in France's defeat and the loss of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. This fueled French nationalism and a desire for revenge. Both nations sought to establish continental hegemony in Europe. Germany and Great Britain also maintained a fierce rivalry for control of international

**Development of the Spanish War of Independence**

The French occupation, along with other circumstances, caused a popular uprising in the streets of Madrid, brutally repressed by the French. This episode marked the beginning of the War of Independence.

Coronation of José I and the Bayonne Assembly

To prevent further revolts, Joachim Murat persuaded the Council of Castile, Madrid City Council, and the Governing Board to support the coronation of the new monarch, José I, brother of Napoleon. Thus, an assembly was convened in Bayonne for José I to take his oath as king and to make proposals for a charter (a granted charter), drawn up by Napoleon. This charter stated that the executive power would be in the hands of the king. Moreover, it declared... Continue reading "Spanish War of Independence: Causes and Key Events" »

The Second Republic in Peacetime (1931-1936)

The young Second Republic was born into a challenging international context, marked by adverse economic and political conditions. The global economic crisis, triggered by the 1929 crash, was in full swing, and the democratic model was declining in Europe. Austria had a *para-fascist* government, Germany was on the verge of being ruled by Adolf Hitler, and Mussolini's Italy was already firmly established. In short, European society in the 1930s witnessed a growing polarization between fascism and socialism.

Key Periods of the Republic

• The Provisional Government (1931)
• The "Reformist Biennium": A period of left-wing political reforms.
• The "Red Biennium": A period marked by the CEDA government, aiming to

Christian Kingdoms: Regional Development

Upon the death of Sancho el Mayor of Pamplona, his son Fernando I received and took the title of King of Castile and León, defeating Bermuda III, the monarch of Tamara, and annexing their domains. After facing his brother García de Pamplona, he occupied territories in western Vizcaya and Álava.

From the 11th century, the progress of the northern kingdoms to the south intensified. The border of the Duero was overcome, and the troops of Fernando I conquered Coimbra. Pilgrimages through the Camino de Santiago introduced lifestyles and cultural manifestations from beyond the Pyrenees.

Division and Consolidation of Power

Fernando I's will divided his dominions between his sons: Alfonso VI received León, Sancho... Continue reading "Christian Kingdoms in Spain: Regional Development & Expansion" »

Item 6: The First World War

The Quick War: 1914

Germany quickly took the initiative in the war to implement its plan of attack, the Schlieffen Plan. The Schlieffen Plan was to throw the army into France through two neutral countries (Belgium and Luxembourg), thus avoiding the iron French defenses along the common border, and could surprise the French army. Meanwhile, the Austro-Hungarian and German side would slow the Russians, taking advantage of the expected slow mobilization. Once France was defeated, all German forces would be launched on Russia, attacking first the Western Front and then the East.

But something went wrong with this plan. In the first phase of the campaign against France, the Allies managed to retreat in a certain order. And... Continue reading "World War I: From Schlieffen Plan to Trench Warfare" »