Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

The Constitution of 1837

The Constitution of 1837 Following the death of Fernando VII in 1833, his young daughter Isabel, under the regency of his wife Maria Cristina, took over Spain. During this regency, the power of liberal groups, both progressive and moderate, fluctuated. The progressive government, formed in September 1836, immediately convened special courts to decide on the restoration of the Constitution of 1812 or the creation of a new one. After nearly a year of discussions, Parliament approved a new Constitution on June 8, 1837, which was signed by Elizabeth II on November 17. This constitution consists of 13 titles, with a total of 77 articles, plus two additional ones. The new constitution embraced the principles of doctrinaire... Continue reading "Spanish Constitutions of 1837 and 1869: A Comparative Analysis" »

The Formation of Al-Andalus (711): In 711, a Muslim army composed of Arabs and Berbers entered the Iberian Peninsula, taking advantage of the internal conflicts among the Visigoths. The decisive battle took place near the Guadalete River, where the Muslim army defeated the last Visigothic king.

After this victory, the Muslims occupied almost the entire peninsula, naming the conquered territory Al-Andalus.

Political Developments (711-1492)

Al-Andalus went through several phases from the initial invasion in 711 until 1492:

• Dependent Emirate of Damascus (Umayyad Caliphate): Al-Andalus was initially dependent on the Umayyad Caliphate, with its capital in Damascus. During these years, the Muslims continued to occupy the peninsula, except for some northern

Causes of World War I

European Rivalries

The enmity between France and Germany started with the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, where France lost Alsace and Lorraine. Germany became the leading power on the continent, reaffirmed by the formation of the Triple Alliance. The European balance of power depended on the British. Economic and political differences between Britain and Germany grew, and Germany began a policy of naval construction. The Triple Entente alliance would become a major military force in Europe. The great European states initiated an arms race to increase their military potency. The great powers were preparing for war.

The Balkan Conflict

The Balkan conflict was caused by the clash of interests between Austria-Hungary and Russia.... Continue reading "Causes and Development of World War I: 1914-1918" »

Twenty years after the uprising in Cuba, which had been repressed by the Peace of Zanjón, the independence movement reappeared in Cuba and Puerto Rico in 1895, and in the Philippines in 1896.

Cuban Revolution and US Intervention

In Cuba, almost the entire population rose up against Spain, led by José Martí of the Cuban Revolutionary Party (PRC). Spain granted Cuba broad autonomy, but it was of little use because the United States entered the conflict on the side of the revolutionaries, hoping for economic advantages from trade with Cuba.

The sinking of the battleship USS Maine, which allegedly killed hundreds of people at the hands of the Spanish, provoked the immediate declaration of war on Spain by the United States. The US ended the Spanish... Continue reading "The Spanish-American War: Loss of the Last Colonies" »

Alfonso XIII's Reign and the Crisis of Restoration in Spain

This period can be placed within the reign of Alfonso XIII and the crisis of the Restoration, a consequence of the regency of Maria Christina of Austria and the Disaster of 1898.

At the end of the 19th century, the regime established by Cánovas, the liberal-conservative party, was shaken by a severe crisis, since it lost the last Spanish colonies: the Philippines, Cuba, and Puerto Rico. The Restoration was fully in line with European colonial imperialism. Booming finance capitalism drove the great powers to form colonial empires around the world, mimicking Great Britain.

In parallel, Spain became involved in an internal crisis, the Disaster. The loss of the colonial empire was considered... Continue reading "Alfonso XIII's Reign: Crisis and Restoration in Spain" »

The Interwar Period: A Brief Overview

The New Deal in the United States

The New Deal, favored by President Roosevelt, resonated deeply with the crisis within the capitalist world. These economic and social measures aimed to relaunch production and revive demand. The government's actions broke with traditional state inhibition. Banking was reformed, strengthening public authority control and improving client protection. Guaranteed prices were ensured for farmers, and collective agreements and minimum wage reductions were implemented for workers. Public investment in major projects was also boosted.

The New Deal imposed laws eliminating unfair situations and created the first federal system of unemployment insurance and pensions, along with minimum... Continue reading "The Interwar Period: New Deal, France, UK, US & Germany" »

Monarchies in the 16th and 17th Centuries

Authoritarian monarchy emerged in the 16th century. The king concentrated all powers, but with some limitations, such as the participation of subjects in parliaments or courts.

Absolute monarchy arose in the 17th century. The king's power had no limits. Parliaments or courts ceased to exist. The king was seen as the direct representative of God on earth.

Mentees were people of absolute confidence of the king, who advised him in the affairs of government. In some cases, these 'valids' actually held the reins of power.

The reasons for this varied: in some cases, the issues of government were very complex and the king needed help from a sincere partner. In other cases, it appeared due to the apathy of kings... Continue reading "Monarchies, Empiricism, and Transformations in 17th Century Europe" »

Causes of Conflict

1. A new world order emerged from World War I.
2. The Treaty of Versailles stimulated revenge instead of creating reconciliation.
3. The crisis of 1929 favored the emergence of fascism: Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany developed aggressive foreign policies driven by economic needs (Hitler) and prestige (Mussolini).
4. The armaments race among fascist powers created a climate of tension in Europe.
5. Democracies remained outside of global problems:
   • The U.S. was isolated.
   • Other powers were preoccupied with their own internal problems (increased unemployment, social unrest).
6. The failure of the League of Nations.

The March to War

In the 1930s, a series of military aggressions were carried out against other countries. In Asia, Japan sought to expand... Continue reading "World War II: Causes, Alliances, and Key Events" »

International Panorama

• Block division of the world (Capitalist West and Communist East)
• Second World War
• Decolonization, Asia and Africa independence (new countries arising poor and backward - called the Third World)

Causes of World War II

• International instability (desire for revenge from Germany)
• 1929 economic crisis
• Aggressive foreign policy of the totalitarian states
• United Nations not acting in time to stop totalitarian policies
• Occupation of Japan in Manchuria, Italy invaded Albania, and Germany, Austria, and in 1938 invaded Poland
• Declaration of war from France and the UK to Germany

Opposing Blocs

1. Germany, Italy, and Japan (dictatorial regimes, formed the central axis)
2. France, UK, and USA (parliamentary politics)

Features of World War II

• Large territorial

War Against the United States (1898)

Causes of the Spanish-American War

The main cause of the Spanish-American War was the Cuban struggle for independence. The Cuban War of Independence (Ten Years' War, 1868-1878) was a conflict that arose during the revolutionary period in Spain, known as the *Sexenio Democrático*, and coincided with the American Civil War and Reconstruction Era. A key point of contention was the abolition of slavery. While Spain had abolished slavery in Europe, its colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico relied heavily on the labor of enslaved Africans in vast tobacco and sugar plantations. The profits from these plantations largely benefited the Catalan bourgeoisie.

The proposal to abolish slavery was met with resistance. Creoles... Continue reading "The Spanish-American War of 1898: A Detailed Account" »