British Colonial Ambitions in Africa

The United Kingdom sought the union of its colonies along a line from Egypt to South Africa, known historically as the Cairo-Cape Route. This ambition obviously clashed with the interests of other powers.

Other British provinces included:

• Sierra Leone
• Gold Coast
• Nigeria
• The coast of Zanzibar
• British Somaliland (near the exit of the Red Sea)

Key Colonial Conflicts and Crises

Colonial conflicts erupted, particularly around the year 1898. These conflicts contributed to a sense of collective depression in certain nations.

The most important conflicts include:

Fashoda Incident (1898)

A confrontation between France and the United Kingdom occurred in Fashoda (in present-day Sudan) because the colonial interests of both countries... Continue reading "British Colonial Expansion in Africa and Imperial Causes" »

World War I

Causes of World War I

Territorial Conflicts

France sought to reclaim Alsace-Lorraine from Germany. Austria-Hungary and Russia both aimed to expand their influence in the Balkans. Italy desired Trento and Istria, territories held by Austria-Hungary.

Nationalist Conflicts

Tensions arose from the diverse nationalities within large empires, particularly in the Balkans.

Economic Rivalries

Germany's industrial growth posed a threat to the British and French economies, further fueled by competition in colonial expansion.

Arms Race and Alliances

An arms race and the formation of two alliance systems—the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente—contributed to the escalating tensions.

Key Stages of World War I

The War of Movement (1914)

Germany's... Continue reading "World War I: Causes, Key Stages, and Impact" »

The Spanish Civil War: Origins and Outbreak

From the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic and the victory of the Popular Front, a process of revolution had begun, threatening the interests and privileges of the ruling classes.

On July 18, 1936, a sector of the army carried out a military coup. Popular mobilization failed to stop it, and the coup escalated into a full-scale civil war.

Key Figures and Initial Uprising

• General Emilio Mola
• General José Sanjurjo
• General Francisco Franco

The uprising began in Melilla, where the rebels quickly seized power throughout Moroccan territory. General Franco took command there.

General Sanjurjo, who was initially designated to lead the uprising, tragically died in a plane crash while returning to Spain.... Continue reading "Spanish Civil War: Origins, Factions, & Global Impact" »

Presidential System

Originating from limited monarchies, where the monarch's power is constrained by objective rules, the presidential system maintains a similar structure.

To preserve the framework of a limited monarchy, the legislative and executive branches operate independently, without any hierarchical dependencies. Each branch fulfills its constitutional role without needing to consider the other.

Features

• Monistic Executive Power: The president, directly elected by the people, embodies both the head of state and government. They appoint and dismiss cabinet members, known as secretaries.
• Absence of a Confidence Relationship: The president's direct popular legitimacy eliminates the need for a vote of confidence or censure motion from parliament.

The Franco Regime: 1939-1959

The Franco dictatorship, which began after the Civil War, had several characteristics: totalitarianism, inspired by the Italian fascist model; warlordism, with Franco as Caudillo of Spain, Head of State, Prime Minister, Generalissimo of all armies, and national party chief; a unitary and centralist conception of the state; the repression of opposition; and control of the media.

Pillars of the Regime

The main pillars of the Franco regime were the army, the single party (Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS, or FET de las JONS), and the Catholic Church.

• The army was the most significant support of the regime and actively participated in power, as most ministers and provincial governors were military personnel.

The Spanish Civil War

The Siege of Madrid

In the summer and autumn, General Mola attempted to take Madrid from the northeast. However, his forces were detained at the pass by the Republican Army of the Sierra de Guadarrama. There was an attempt to retake the capital in the Battle of Jarama, but after thousands of deaths, the Nationalist Army was defeated in its objectives. In the Battle of Guadalajara, the Nationalist Army was defeated by the Republicans, with thousands of Italian soldiers killed.

The city of Madrid was defended by a defense council led by General Miaja. General Franco, upon receiving permission to take Madrid, diverted his forces to liberate the Alcázar of Toledo. This delayed the advance on Madrid for three years. Finally,... Continue reading "Spanish Civil War: Key Battles and International Impact" »

That should already be sufficient to ensure order and to prevent possible riots (popular or Carlist), recalling that "the insurgency is no longer a right from the time when universal suffrage without appeal to the barbaric use of weapons."

The text continues with the first plans of the Republic: universal suffrage, stressing the elimination of the illegalities that were committed previously to falsify the elections as "coercion, deception, violence, and fraud" (done many times before with the help of their own governors).

Conclusion

The text is entirely subjective, as it tries to spread Republican ideals and show in what respects it improves over other ideologies that have failed before. We know its authenticity not only because it was written... Continue reading "First Spanish Republic: Origins, Ideals, and Impact" »

Military Organizations of the Cold War

After dividing the world into two blocs, the following military organizations were created:

• NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization): Formed by Western Bloc countries, including the USA, Canada, UK, France, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg, Italy, Portugal, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland.

Greece and Turkey joined in 1952, and Spain in 1982.

The entrance of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1955 led to the creation of the Warsaw Pact.

• Warsaw Pact: Created in 1955, it comprised Eastern Bloc countries such as East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria.

Besides these two main blocs, other organizations also existed.

Early Stages of the Cold War (1948-1953)

• Czechoslovakia: The confrontation between

The Spanish Constitution of 1931

The 1931 Constitution established a separation of powers, although priority was given to Parliament. Parliament had the power to control the government's actions, and even consisted of the President of the Republic. In contrast, the President had very limited powers. Finally, the Constitutional Court was established to ensure the legality of laws enacted by the government.

Another important aspect was the Church-State separation. Key features included:

• The definition of Spain as an integral state compatible with the autonomy of municipalities.
• Castilian as the official language.
• Finally, abandoning war in its external relations.

The most controversial aspect was its anti-clerical stance. Freedom of worship, the abolition... Continue reading "Spanish Constitution of 1931 and the Second Republic" »

The Political Model of the Second Republic

Left-Wing Parties

This category includes Republican parties, those supporting regional autonomy, and workers' parties.

Bourgeois Left-Wing Republican Parties

• Republican Action: Founded by Manuel Azaña, this party comprised leftist intellectuals. Its political ideology centered on the modernization of social and political structures. During the first two years of the Republic, it collaborated closely with the PSOE.
• Radical Socialist Party: Created by Marcelino Domingo, its ideology was very similar to Republican Action. Domingo served as Minister of Public Instruction. This party later merged with Republican Action and ORGA to form Republican Left.
• Republican Union: Founded by Diego Martínez Barrio after