Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The Turn of the Century World Economy

Germany led European industrial production, powered by its robust iron and steel industry, utilizing advancements like the Bessemer converter. The United States industrialized rapidly in the latter half of the 19th century, fueled by European immigration which expanded its workforce.

Imperialism

Definition: During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, developed nations seized control of regions worldwide, establishing colonies and expanding empires.

The Colonial Empires

The British Empire, the largest, encompassed colonies across North America, Asia, Africa, and Oceania, notably India and Australia. The French empire, though smaller, held colonies in Africa and Asia.

Causes of Imperial Expansion

The primary... Continue reading "Late 19th and Early 20th Century Global Transformations" »

In 1902, Alphonse XIII (son of Maria Cristina) ascended to the throne and supported the most conservative sectors. The two dynastic parties, taking turns in government, divided due to changes in their leadership. Consequently, caciques (local political bosses) lost influence. In this context of political instability, the country faced several social problems, including:

• Increased social crises (landowners vs. workers)
• Protests against the Church (anticlericalism expanded)
• Criticism of the army
• Growth of the workers' movement (mainly in Catalonia and the Basque Country)
• The Moroccan problem

Furthermore, social and political opposition developed, albeit without immediate success. These opposition groups included:

• Carlists
• Republicans
• Workers' movements,

Battle of the Marne

Germany attempted to execute the Schlieffen Plan, which aimed to quickly defeat France and then attack Russia. However, the French successfully halted the German advance at the Battle of the Marne.

Gallipoli Campaign

The British attempted to seize the Dardanelles Strait in order to isolate Turkey, but they were defeated in Gallipoli (1915-1916).

Russian Withdrawal from World War I

The Russian front collapsed due to the Bolshevik Revolution, which caused them to withdraw from the conflict.

United States Enters World War I

When the U.S.A. joined the war on the side of the Allies, it provided significant amounts of supplies and soldiers, which enabled the Allies to win the war.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

The Germans made peace with Russia... Continue reading "Key Events and Outcomes of World War I and the Russian Revolution" »

Early Supporters of the Labor Movement

The first supporters of the labor movement were wealthy middle-class intellectuals. They were the first to denounce the exploitation of workers and raised the need to improve the living conditions of the working class. Robert Owen founded the New Harmony community, based on economic collaboration and the social and economic equality of its members.

MARXISM

Marxist socialism is named after the German philosopher Karl Marx. He lived in exile in various European cities. He studied the process of industrialization and the inequalities it caused. In their most famous work, The Communist Manifesto, Marx and Engels wrote that the revolutionary struggle of the proletariat against the moneyed middle class would result... Continue reading "Labor Movement Origins and Socialist Theories" »

Core Principles of Nazi Ideology

The foundational beliefs that defined Nazism included:

• Authoritarianism

  Decisions should be made by a leader with almost absolute power.

• Totalitarianism

  They believed it was the government's duty not just to devise policy but to shape, coordinate, and regulate society for the betterment of the nation. A totalitarian government must have the authority to control the press and unions, restrict civil liberties and freedoms, manage education, and employ propaganda.

• Nationalism

  Nazism was concerned only with Germany and German interests. The Nazis had little interest in forming or improving international relationships, except to advance German interests.

• Militarism

  Hitler and his followers believed that rearming and expanding

Spanish Architecture

There were three main styles:

• The Plateresque style of abundant decoration developed in the early 16th century. The facade of Salamanca University is an outstanding example.
• In the Classicist style, the harmony of a building was more important than its decoration. The palace of Carlos V in the Alhambra in Granada was built in the Classicist style, but this never became widespread in Spain.
• The Herrerian style became influential in the second half of the 16th century. Buildings were characterized by their sobriety and almost total lack of decoration. The monastery of San Lorenzo de El Escorial, designed by Juan de Herrera, was the most famous example.

El Greco

El Greco, originally named Domenikos Theotokopoulos, was born in... Continue reading "Spanish Architecture, El Greco, and Authoritarian Monarchies in 15th-16th Century Europe" »

24: Autonomy Statute 79

Series of articles of the BAS 79 (still in use). Legal text signed by Adolfo Suarez. Author: the autonomous government of the region. First level.

Back to the end of Francoism and transition. After Franco’s death, people in the government changed. Suarez was introduced as a co-operator, and he started making some reforms. The first one was the Political Reform Bill that was submitted to a referendum. Once it was approved, that was the opening to democracy. Moreover, elections were held. In the central government, UCD was the winner. In the case of the Basque Country, PNV began writing the 1978 Constitution. Democratic. It recognized national sovereignty. Nation: constitutional monarchy with two chambers: congress/senate,... Continue reading "Autonomy Statute 79: The Basque Country's Path to Self-Governance" »

The Great Depression and the Wall Street Crash of 1929

The stock market collapsed in the Wall Street Crash of 1929, leading to widespread American poverty during the subsequent economic depression. The 1920s had seen massive stock market expansion, which peaked in August 1929.

The End of the Roaring Twenties

The Crash marked the definitive end of the Roaring Twenties. The economic fallout was immediate and severe:

• Unemployment soared, reaching approximately 13 million people.
• Investors lost their money in the Crash and could not pay their debts.
• Many banks closed, causing ordinary people to lose their life savings.
• People lost hope for the future and were forced to live in primitive conditions, often traveling desperately in search of work.

Signs frequently... Continue reading "Defining Moments in 20th Century American History" »

Causes of the February Revolution

The February Revolution was provoked by Russian military failures during the First World War, as well as public dissatisfaction with the way the country was run on the home front. The economic challenges faced due to fighting a total war also contributed.

Short-Term Triggers

• The Tsar being away from Petrograd
• Contempt for the Tsarina
• The army's mutiny against the Tsar's rule
• Unusually mild winter weather
• Demonstrations in support of the Duma
• The International Women's Day march
• Industrial unrest and strikes
• Announcement of bread rationing and food shortages in Petrograd

Tsar Nicholas II's Response

Nicholas sent the police and soldiers into Petrograd to end the unrest. They opened fire on more than 50 people, which some... Continue reading "February Revolution 1917: Causes and Effects" »