Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

THOREAU’S CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE

Perhaps the most famous text in the literature of romantic reform is Henry David Thoreau’s essay, Resistance to Civil Government (1849), better known as Civil Disobedience. The occasion of the essay was Thoreau’s refusal to pay a poll tax in the town of Concord in protest of the United States war with Mexico (1846– 1848). Thoreau regarded the war as a conspiracy to seize Mexican lands and enable the expansion of southern slavery. Thoreau was jailed for his refusal to pay the tax. His essay is a defense of his actions as well as a treatise on the moral and political responsibilities of the citizen. In Civil Disobedience, Thoreau argues that, in an ideal world, governments would be rendered unnecessary;

MARGARET

Life in the Thirteen American Colonies

By the year 1733, the English owned 13 separate colonies along the Atlantic coast of North America. The colonies stretched from New Hampshire in the north to Georgia in the south. Most people divided them into three main groups. Most residents were small farmers or craftsmen, working the stony soil and governing themselves in small towns and villages. The nearest colonies to the south of New England were called the Middle Colonies.

The Boston Tea Party and Early Conflicts

In Boston Harbor, a group of Massachusetts colonists disguised as Mohawk Indians boarded three British tea ships belonging to the British East India Company. The Americans were protesting a tax on tea ("no taxation without representation"

Fascism in Italy

Causes of Fascism

Dissatisfaction with the peace agreements established after the First World War and the post-war situation. Unemployment, inflation, and social unrest expressed through revolutionary movements that frightened conservative sectors of society.

Fascism was created by Benito Mussolini, who founded the National Fascist Party in 1921 using paramilitary groups (which were illegal) such as the Blackshirts. He gained support from large landowners, the small bourgeoisie, and Emmanuel III. In 1922, the intervention of the Italian Combat Squad against the trade unions and workers' strikes allowed Mussolini to claim power. To pressure the government, he organised a March on Rome with the Blackshirts.

Once he was in power,... Continue reading "Fascism and Nazism: Origins, Rise, and Impact" »

The Spanish Restoration (1874-1931): Bourbon Monarchy

The end of the First Spanish Republic coincided with the Carlist Wars and uprisings. Cánovas del Castillo formed the Alfonsist party, aiming to restore the Bourbon monarchy with Alfonso XII. After Isabel II abdicated, Cánovas became Alfonso XII's tutor and sent him to England. The Sandhurst Manifesto declared Spain a constitutional monarchy, followed by the pronunciamiento of Sagunto in 1874. Alfonso XII became king in 1875.

Cánovas and the Canovite Settlement

As a deputy in the 1869 Cortes, Cánovas opposed the 1869 Constitution, finding the liberty of religious practice unacceptable, and he also opposed universal suffrage. He admired the English political system for its stability and lack... Continue reading "Spanish Restoration: Bourbon Monarchy and Political Shifts" »

Lincoln Cathedral

It was the tallest building in the world for 238 years. After came Gizeh.

Architect: Bishop Remigious

Patron: William the Conqueror

Style: Gothic

Century: Consecrated 11 May 1092

Stonehenge

Architect:

Patron:

Style: Prehistoric monument

Century: Constructed from 3000 BC to 2000 BC.

Great Pyramids, Gizeh, Egypt: It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain largely intact.

Architect:

Patron:

Style: Prehistoric

Century: 2580-2560 BC

The Parthenon, Athens, Greece: dedicated to the goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their patron.

Architect: Iktinos, Callicrates

Patron: Athenian Empire

Style: Classical Greece

Century: Completed 432 BC

Maison Carree, Nimes, France the Maison Carree was dedicated... Continue reading "Historic Architectural Masterpieces Around the World" »

Edward the confessor- Harold vs Tostig- William- Battle of hastings. JSDIC.

Loss- King John lost Norm.- E & F broken, 1st concern(king nobles),Own Pol&Econ

E- NAtion - E non ultivate. E Not merely a geo term but once more a nation.

MeLIT - 1150-1250 "The period of Rel record", English was absent inb works

Appealing to courtly tastes, lang of midd low clases F top

1250-1350 " T + Secular Lit In English -- wider diff engl lang & adopted all class

1350-1400- "the Period of GIR". GC - Troilus& Criseyde" - Canter T.

W. Langland- social allegory / John Wycliffe putative transl of BIBLE, Sir gawain

and the Green Knight and the three allegorical religious poems. + 15 th period

Real Arthur.

No one has answered the question of the King Arthur being... Continue reading "The Evolution of the Arthurian Legend" »

The Causes of World War I

Colonial Conflicts and Tensions

The Berlin Conference had attempted to establish rules for the colonization of the African continent by European empires, but the German Empire reopened these conflicts. At the beginning of the 20th century, Morocco was the main scene of international tension as European powers competed to control it.

Rivalries, Nationalism, and Imperial Ambitions

European powers became increasingly nationalistic to defend their interests in Europe and their colonial empires. Some European peoples had nationalist aspirations and wanted to become independent states, while others defended their status as great traditional empires.

The German Empire annexed the French region of Alsace-Lorraine following its... Continue reading "The Path to World War I: Alliances, Rivalries, and Conflict" »

Prehistory and Early Civilizations

Prehistoric Connections and Art

• The *Homo sapiens sapiens*-Neanderthalensis connection.
• The **Bering Land Bridge**.
• Paleolithic Art:
  • ***Venus*** figurines (representing the feminine).
  • Cave paintings at **Altamira** (Spain) and **Lascaux** (France).

Mesopotamia: Cradle of Civilization

• The ancient city of **Damascus**.
• **Sargon I** (c. 2330 BC): Conquered the Sumerian city-states.
• **The Code of Hammurabi**: Considered the first comprehensive written legal code.
• Mesopotamia (335–300 BC): Fell under the control of **Alexander the Great**.
• Architectural Elements (General): Arch, fresco, relief, and vault.

Ancient Egypt: Pharaohs and Empires

• **Unification**: c. 3100 BC, Egypt was united into a single kingdom by Pharaoh **Menes*

Decisions and Agreements

• Mutual recognition: Recognition between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).
• Palestinian autonomy and the Palestinian National Authority: Establishment of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) to govern parts of the West Bank and Gaza Strip.
• Creation of the Palestinian police: Formation of a Palestinian police force responsible for security in areas under PNA control.
• Division of the West Bank:
  • Zone A: Full Palestinian control of cities and some agrarian areas (3%).
  • Zone B: Mixed control, with Palestinian administration but Israeli military presence (25%).
  • Zone C: Full Israeli control, including the most fertile territories and Israeli settlements (72%).
• Major unresolved issues: Jerusalem, refugees, and

Post-World War I Economic and Political Landscape

Post-War Economic Challenges

World economic dominance shifted from Great Britain to the United States. In Europe, the adaptation from a war economy to a peace economy was difficult due to the cessation of hostilities, rampant inflation, and high unemployment. The crisis was particularly severe in Germany.

International Efforts for Stability

To resolve the conflict and stabilize the European economy, the United States introduced the Dawes Plan in 1924. This plan significantly improved relations between France and Germany, leading to the signing of the Treaty of Locarno in 1925. Germany was subsequently admitted into the League of Nations in 1926, marking a period of cautious optimism.

Economic Instability