Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Comparing Ancient Empires: Rome and Han China

While many civilizations aspired to build strong, lasting empires, none approached the enduring influence of the Roman Empire (27 BCE - 476 CE) and the Han Dynasty of China (206 BCE - 220 CE). Their unparalleled impact remains essential for historians seeking to understand our past.

Similarities in Imperial Governance

A primary similarity between these empires was the role of the emperor. Both ascribed divine attributes to their rulers and frequently struggled with establishing clear rules for imperial succession. The Romans often attempted to choose their best general, while the Chinese selected a man who could control the imperial family and court. Neither empire believed that a single family should... Continue reading "Ancient Empires: Rome and China's Enduring Legacies" »

The Soviet Union: From Revolution to Cold War

The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917, when the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Russian Provisional Government that had replaced Tsar Nicholas II. This established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (Russian SFSR) and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary "Reds" and the counter-revolutionary "Whites." The Red Army entered several territories of the former Russian Empire and helped local communists take power through workers' councils called "soviets", which nominally acted on behalf of workers and peasants. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian,... Continue reading "Soviet Union: From Revolution to Cold War" »

Spanish Industrialization Law of 1939

This document is a firsthand legal text, a law enacted to provide state support for the creation of industries of national interest. Authored by Franco in October 1939, it reflects the post-Civil War priorities of the Spanish state.

Published after the end of the Civil War, the law emerged from the state's recognition of the importance of industries, particularly those with wartime applications. The country's situation was dire, with widespread destruction of infrastructure and reduced agricultural and industrial output. The Northern Campaign highlighted the need for state control over key industries.

The Rationale Behind the Law

The law was driven by the realization that controlling industries, especially... Continue reading "Spanish Industrialization Law of 1939: A Post-War Analysis" »

Francoism: The Dictatorship of Francisco Franco (1939–1975)

Defining Characteristics of the Regime

Francisco Franco’s political regime was a military dictatorship with strong fascist characteristics. The regime was opposed to Communism and democracy. It was based on militarism, conservative Catholicism, and believed in preserving the unity of Spain. Franco was the Head of State and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces, holding all powers.

Pillars of Support

The dictatorship maintained power through the support of key groups:

• The Wealthy Bourgeoisie: Supported the dictatorship because it suppressed the demands of the worker’s movement.
• The Armed Forces: Many officers enjoyed important public posts within the administration.
• The Catholic Church:

The Reign of Carlos IV and the French Revolution

Carlos IV's reign began in 1788. He initially seemed to follow in his father's footsteps, favoring a reformist monarchy based on the principles of the Enlightenment. However, with the start of the French Revolution, his government panicked and repressed all revolutionary ideas through the Inquisition. When Louis XVI of France, Carlos IV’s cousin, was tried and executed, Spain sent troops to fight the National Convention, but they had little success.

When Napoleon came to power in 1799, Spain’s new Prime Minister, Manuel Godoy, returned to the policy of alliances with France, following the 18th-century tradition of the Pactos de Familia. The Spanish fleet joined forces with the French to implement... Continue reading "Spain's Peninsular War and the 1812 Constitution" »

Disarmament Failure in the 1930s

Germany was forced to disarm after World War I, while other nations had not done the same. Countries were spending more on armaments than before.

The 1932 Disarmament Conference

In 1932, the disarmament conference produced resolutions to:

• Prohibit bombing of civilian populations.
• Limit the size of artillery.
• Limit the tonnage of tanks.
• Prohibit chemical warfare.

Germany, having been a member of the League for six years, argued they should be treated more equally than under the Treaty of Versailles. The central question was: Should everyone disarm, or should the Germans be allowed to rearm?

The conference failed to agree on the principle of equality. Britain later sent a note agreeing to equality, and an agreement was... Continue reading "League of Nations Failures: Disarmament and Abyssinia Crises" »

Qin Shihuang: China's First Emperor

The unification of the Central Plains by Qin Wang (Ying Zheng) occurred between 230 BCE and 221 BCE, culminating in the defeat of the six major vassal states. This reunification ended centuries of conflict among warring princes, fostering stability and establishing the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE)—the first unified, multi-ethnic feudal state in Chinese history.

Upon unification, Qin Shihuang (meaning "First Emperor") created a far-reaching imperial system. He established the Sangong and Jiuqing system for the central government and promoted the Commandery and Prefecture (County) system locally, significantly strengthening centralization.

Standardization and National Unity

Emperor Qin Shihuang implemented crucial... Continue reading "The Rise and Fall of the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BCE)" »

1. What Were Jefferson’s Beliefs About the Role of Government? He believed in having limited power, but setbacks were in order. He was an Anti-Federalist and a Jeffersonian Republican. He believed in frugality (little spending) and simplicity, which meant he cut back on some things. He reduced the army and the number of government employees. He also wanted to cut back on taxes and succeeded in eliminating the entire national debt. He believed that each state should have its own rights, such as education and road maintenance.

2. In the Election of 1800, What Were the Federalists Afraid Of? Federalists were afraid of revolution and chaos (Adams) because if Jefferson won the election, everything was going to change.

3. In the Election of 1800,

Central Powers

Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria, Italy (only 1 year)

Allies

France, Russia, Great Britain, Italy (1915), later Japan and USA

The war started in Europe but affected other continents due to the colonial expansion.

Causes

The 28 June 1914, Franz Ferdinand (the A-H heir to the throne) was murdered in Sarajevo, Bosnia. With his wife Sophie, by the Serbian nationalist student Gavrilo Princip. After an ultimatum, A-H declared war on Serbia, and Russia defended Serbia. France took the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine from Germany. Italy took Istria and Trent from A-H. Some claimed independence in the Balkans, countries were fighting against the oppression of the Austrian and the Turkish empires. Due to the competition in commerce... Continue reading "Causes and Consequences of World War I" »