Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Colonial Conflicts

The Berlin Conference (1885) attempted to establish rules for the colonization of the African continent by European empires. However, the rise of powers such as the German Empire reopened conflicts between European countries. At the beginning of the 20th century, Morocco was the main scene of international tension, as European powers competed to control it. The possibility of war was constantly present.

Rivalry Between Powers and Nationalism

European powers became increasingly nationalistic to defend their interests in Europe and their colonial empires. Some Europeans had nationalist aspirations, while others wanted to defend their great empires. The Balkans became a center of heightened tension. There was also significant rivalry... Continue reading "The Road to World War I: From Colonial Conflicts to Global Conflict" »

End of the War: Allies are Victorious

9. END OF THE WAR: ALLIES ARE VICTORIOUS

1. - 1943 British forces gained control of North Africa and Italy, forcing Mussolini to surrender.

2. - In June 1944, Allied forces landed on Normandy, France. D-day.

3. - In May 1945, Germany surrendered. In August 1945, the United States used the atomic bomb with Japan. World War 2 was over.

End of the War: Results of the War

10. END OF THE WAR: RESULTS OF THE WAR

1. - United States and Soviet Union emerged as the most powerful countries in the world.

2. - In 1945, some 50 nations formed the United Nations, an international peacekeeping organization.

Cold War: Definition

11. COLD WAR: DEFINITION

It was a period of tense rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union.

New Technology & Tactics

Tank corps & RFC growing in importance; awareness of importance of these new weapons.

Significant improvements to tank technology & tactics in particular. Tanks employed en masse and with infantry filing behind to ‘mop up’.

Improvement of artillery; ‘Creeping Barrage’ made more effective by better communications & ‘106 fuse’ shells designed to explode horizontally.

Battle of Arras & Failure of Nivelle

Designed as a diversion to Nivelle’s upcoming offensive.

Element of surprise achieved with only short artillery bombardment preceding the attack. Artillery also far more effective.

Infantry approached German trenches through tunnels to minimize casualties.

Efficacy of ‘Combined Arms Tactics’... Continue reading "World War I Battles: New Technology and Tactics" »

1. Indigenous Societies & Colonial Advantages

What was the most important advantage that Indigenous groups in Mexico or Peru had compared to other Indigenous groups?

D. The ability to create a surplus of food.

2. Spanish Colonial Priorities

Which answer best describes Spanish colonies?

D. Converting Indigenous peoples to Christianity was a high priority.

3. Jamestown Colony's Prosperity

The Jamestown, Virginia, colony eventually prospered because:

B. Tobacco became a profitable crop to export.

4. Puritan Migration to North America

What was the most important reason the Puritans left England?

To start a society based on Protestant ideals.

5. Quaker Uniqueness in 17th Century North America

The Quakers were unique among the religious groups that settled

The Decline of the Hispanic Monarchy

Felipe III had the largest empire in the 17th century. He disliked ruling the country, so he delegated his authority to a valido, which was a kind of prime minister that depended on the king's favor. He faced several problems, but he was able to maintain its extension due to his pacifist policies:

• He signed a peace with England with the Treaty of London (1604).
• The Twelve Years' Truce with the Netherlands from 1609 to 1621 maintained peace, although it was an indirect way of recognizing the Northern Provinces' independence as the truce was not able to be renewed and then at the Thirty Years' War it was confirmed in the Treaty of Westphalia.
• Peace with France was signed in 1598.

During his reign, the Moriscos... Continue reading "The Decline of the Hispanic Monarchy in the 17th Century" »

German Unification: A Historical Overview

Until the 19th century, Germany was a conglomeration of more than 300 German-speaking political entities. The railway and the Zollverein, a customs union founded in 1834, reduced the barriers among the German states and helped to create a sense of economic unification that set the groundwork for the political unification of Germany.

Bismarck's Role in Unification

The process was led by Otto von Bismarck, chancellor of Prussia. His foreign policy was based on the Realpolitik.

The Prussian Military's Influence

The Prussian military played a key role in the German unification. It was commanded by Field Marshal Helmut von Moltke, who organized a formidable army due to its size, organization (creation of a General... Continue reading "German Unification: From Fragmentation to Empire" »

Participants

Allies: France, UK, US, and the Soviet Union (from 1941)

Axis Powers: Germany, Italy, and Japan

Causes

• Germany's quest for revenge after the Treaty of Versailles
• Expansion of totalitarian ideologies (Fascism, Nazism)
• Rise in militarism and nationalism, leading to territorial claims
• Economic depression during the 1930s

Steps to the War

• Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1932
• Annexation of Ethiopia (1935) and Albania (1939) by Italy
• Annexation of Austria (1938) and Czechoslovakia (1939) by Germany
• German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact (1939)

Spark of the Conflict

German invasion of Poland using the Blitzkrieg method (September 1, 1939)

Stages

1st Stage

Victory of the Axis Powers, invasion of Poland (quick attack using planes and tanks)

Denmark, the Baltic... Continue reading "World War II: Causes, Stages, and Aftermath" »

The Weimar Republic's Fragility

Early Challenges and Opposition

The provisional government repressed the Spartacist Revolt in 1919, led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, which aimed to impose a communist regime. A constituent assembly then passed a constitution in the city of Weimar, establishing Germany as a democratic republic. This new democracy faced significant opposition from extremist groups:

• The extreme left believed the regime was too moderate.
• The extreme right believed the new regime had betrayed Germany by accepting the Treaty of Versailles.

Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party

Party Formation and Early Actions

Adolf Hitler joined the German Workers' Party (DAP), which later became the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP).... Continue reading "The Genesis of Nazism: From Weimar's Weakness to Hitler's Chancellorship" »

The French Revolution: A Timeline

The Assembly of Notables

Why did that happen?

France was in a dire state due to wars. King Louis XVI called upon the nobles to convince them of a new financial plan.

What was it?

The Assembly of Notables was a group of important nobles who tried to solve France's tax problems but failed to reach a solution.

Why does it matter?

This was the last Assembly of Notables. It did not solve anything. It led to Louis XVI dismissing his finance minister and calling the Estates-General.

Meeting of the Estates-General (1789)

Why did that happen?

France still needed to find a way to raise money. Louis XVI called the Estates-General to address France's financial crisis.

What were the Estates-General?

It was a meeting of the general... Continue reading "French Revolution: Key Events and Timeline 1789-1793" »