Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

The American Revolution: Birth of a Nation

The creation of the United States broke radically with monarchical traditions. It began with the rebellion of the 13 colonies against taxes imposed by Great Britain. GB sent troops, initiating a war between the colonies and the metropolis (1775). In 1776, the colonies adopted the Declaration of Independence. The war, with support from France and Spain, ended in 1783 with American independence.

The new nation, called the United States of America, had several novelties:

• The Declaration of Rights, adopted by the State of Virginia, affirmed natural rights inherent in every person.
• It established a fundamental law, or Constitution (1787), mandating that all political positions be elected periodically.
• The political

Peace Treaties After World War I

The Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to take responsibility for the war. Germany returned Alsace and Lorraine to France and consented to the occupation of the Saarland. East Prussia was cut off by the Danzig corridor. Germany delivered its colonies, accepted the demilitarization of the Rhineland, and reduced its army and arsenals.

The Austro-Hungarian Empire dissolved, and Czechoslovakia was formed. Italy made only small territorial gains. Romania grew with territories from Hungary and Russia. Hungary and Austria were reduced to small, landlocked states. Bulgaria had to surrender its Aegean coast to Greece. The Ottoman Empire disappeared and was replaced by a republic. Its Arab territories were given as mandates.... Continue reading "Aftermath of World War I: Treaties, Economic Shifts & Social Change" »

The Stalinist totalitarian state's territorial expansion, along with German, Italian, and Japanese expansionism, and the anti-Comintern pact, provoked the rupture of democratic nations (Britain and France). The implementation of a policy of appeasement and the formation of the Axis (Berlin-Rome-Tokyo) through cooperation agreements in 1936 set the stage for conflict. Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, triggering the war.

The War's Phases

Phase 1

Germany quickly conquered Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France using blitzkrieg tactics. Hitler's attempt to invade England failed in the Battle of Britain. Germany then pressured Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Slovakia to join the Axis. In 1941, Germany invaded Yugoslavia and... Continue reading "World War II: Causes, Key Events, and Consequences" »

The Cuban Revolution

In the mid-twentieth century, Cuba was ruled by Fulgencio Batista, who was supported by the U.S. Batista tried to diversify the Cuban economy, which was based on the production and exportation of sugar, with the construction of public works and tourism development. The corruption of the scheme produced a movement of opposition led by Fidel Castro. Castro and his followers launched a guerrilla war against Batista. In 1959, Batista fled, and Castro and his troops entered Havana.

Castro's Domestic Policy

Castro's domestic policy was based on the imposition of a communist state modeled on the USSR.

Economy

In the economy, measures were taken such as the collectivization of land and the nationalization of banks. Cuba's economy became... Continue reading "Cuban and Asian Communist Revolutions: A Historical Analysis" »

San Pietro in Montorio: Bramante's Masterpiece

Commission and Location

The Catholic Kings commissioned Bramante to prepare this work, intended to commemorate and mark the place where, according to tradition, Saint Peter was crucified. The temple, known as the Tempietto, is located in the cloister of a Franciscan convent on Gianicolo Hill in Rome. Its construction began in 1502.

The Architect: Bramante

Bramante's formation combined influences from both Brunelleschi and the architecture of Northern Italy. His work in Milan for the Sforza family defined his style until his move to Rome in 1499, where he came into direct contact with the great buildings of antiquity.

Formal Analysis

The building has a central plan, and all design follows a circular form.... Continue reading "Bramante's Tempietto: A Renaissance Masterpiece" »

Spain's Transition to Democracy After Franco

The Beginning of the Transition (1975)

The transition to democracy in Spain began in 1975, following the death of Francisco Franco. To facilitate this transition, two key groups emerged. King Juan Carlos I was appointed, not as his hereditary title dictated, but because people believed he would usher in the end of Franco's dictatorship and establish democracy for all. Collaboration from the Spanish people was crucial to achieving this goal.

Social Unrest and Demands for Change

The populace was largely against the existing government, particularly the Arias Navarro administration. There was significant social unrest, highlighted by approximately 20,000 strikes in a single year. People demanded democratization,... Continue reading "Spain's Transition to Democracy After Franco's Death" »

The Announcement of Cortes

The Supreme Central Junta, unable to lead the war, dissolved in January 1810. Before dissolving, it initiated the process of convening a parliament for representatives of the nation, deciding on its organization, maintaining courts, and establishing a five-member regency. The Cortes opened in September 1810, and the liberal sector achieved its first victory by forcing the formation of a single chamber. They approved the principle of national sovereignty, recognizing that power resides in the citizens, represented in Parliament.

The Constitution of 1812

Promulgated on March 19, 1812, the constitution included a bill of rights for citizens:

• Freedom of thought and opinion
• Equality of Spaniards before the law
• Right of petition
• Civil

The Russian Revolution: From Tsarist Autocracy to the USSR

Tsarist Autocracy

In the Tsarist empire, the Tsar's authority was absolute. Its economy was the most backward in Europe. Political power was entirely in the hands of the government, ruling by decree without a constitution or parliament. A vast bureaucracy, a powerful Orthodox Church, and the army dominated the empire. Land ownership was concentrated in the hands of the privileged aristocracy, and the peasant population was subjected to a near-feudal system.

Some parts of the empire experienced industrial development driven by foreign capital, leading to the emergence of an industrial proletariat. These workers, influenced by Marxist ideas, founded the Russian Social Democratic Party, which... Continue reading "Russian Revolutions: February & October" »

The Carolingian Empire

From Frankish Kingdom to Imperial Power

The Franks, originating from the Rhine region, settled in Gaul after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Clovis I united the Gallic peoples and the Franks, defeating the Visigoths at the Battle of Vouillé and entering Hispania.

Charles Martel's victory against the Muslims at the Battle of Poitiers halted the Islamic invasion into Europe. His son, Pepin the Short, founded the Carolingian dynasty.

The Reign of Charlemagne

The Carolingian Empire flourished from the 8th to the late 9th century, with Charlemagne, son of Pepin the Short, as its architect. Charlemagne's expansionist policies extended the empire across the Iberian Peninsula, Gaul (modern-day France, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg,... Continue reading "The Carolingian Empire: Rise, Reign, and Legacy" »

The Second Spanish Republic: A Concise History

The Proclamation of the Republic occurred on April 14, 1931, after Alfonso XIII lost the support of the proletariat. This followed the Pact of San Sebastian, where Alcala Zamora was not in government.

In Catalonia, the Esquerra Republicana dominated the government. Agreements such as the Estatut de Núria were approved, including opposition to the Spanish right, approval of the final text, and a reduction of power in the approval of the 1931 Constitution. Francesc Macià, the Republican President of Esquerra, implemented economic, educational, linguistic, and territorial measures, and the Law of Bases was approved in 1934 (health).

The Constitution of 1931 (Biennium d'Esquerres 31-33) aimed to incorporate... Continue reading "Second Republic of Spain: Key Events and Political Forces" »