Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Napoleon's Rise and Fall (1804-1815)

Domestic Policy

Napoleon declared himself Emperor of France in 1804. He established the Civil Code, a set of laws that applied equally to all citizens. It introduced new legal concepts such as:

• Civil marriage
• Divorce
• Adoption
• State education

International Policy

Napoleon expanded his empire through numerous military victories over other European powers. He defeated all the countries allied against France except Great Britain. His power began to decline because he had to divide his forces between two distant fronts: Spain and the Russian Empire. Napoleon was finally defeated in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo.

Consequences of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Empire

The main consequence of the French Revolution and... Continue reading "Napoleon, French Revolution & Spanish War of Independence" »

Consequences of the Crisis

1. This was a period of serious political tension. Warlords led the pillaging and made the distribution of goods precarious. Armies often burned the land of their enemies so they would go hungry.

2. Bad harvests and grain shortages resulted in famine.

3. Malnutrition weakened the population and enabled epidemics to emerge. These developed more easily in the cities, as the sanitary conditions there were worse.

4. The bubonic plague, also known as the Black Death, spread through Europe between 1348 and 1350. It took the lives of approximately 50% of Europe's population.

5. Social unrest. Economic crisis and population decline had consequences for society: social differences increased, there was a general climate of insecurity and violence;

Context

This document analyzes a sermon written by Añoveros, Bilbao’s bishop, in February 1974. Intended to be read publicly in parishes and addressed to public authorities, the sermon focuses on the lack of respect for Basque traditions. It was written during a period when the Basque provinces faced differing treatment under Franco's regime. While Araba and Navarre remained relatively unaffected, Gipuzkoa and Viscay, having defended the republic, endured harsh punishments, including the suppression of the Basque language and the denial of the Economic Concert.

Economic and Social Climate

Spain's economic situation in the early 1970s was relatively strong, fueled by the economic miracle of the 1960s. Industrial expansion attracted a wave of... Continue reading "Añoveros' Sermon: Basque Culture and Freedom" »

1. What were the economic and demographic consequences of the war?

The First World War caused the deaths of around ten million soldiers and a large number of civilian casualties due to malnutrition and disease.
The conflict left the warring nations impoverished. European industry and agriculture reduced in size, and all European countries were in debt, especially to the United States.

2. Why was the League of Nations created? Why did it fall?

US President Wilson suggested the creation of a League of Nations (LN) to guarantee peace and cooperation between states. However, the defeated countries were excluded from the LN, and finally, neither the USSR nor the US joined it. With so many excluded countries, the LN ended up by having no influence on... Continue reading "Consequences of World War I and the Treaty of Versailles" »

A

• Aboveboard: Legal and transparent.
• Anguish: Mental or physical pain or suffering.
• Anti-clericalism: Opposition to the power or influence of the clergy.
• Armistice: A truce.
• Arms race: Competitions between nations for superiority in the development and accumulation of weapons.
• Attrition: The action of gradually wearing down through sustained attack.
• Autocratic: Ruled with absolute power.
• Axis: The alliance between Germany and Italy in the Second World War.

B

• Bankrupt: Unable to pay one's debts.
• Barbed wire: Wire with sharp spikes used as a defensive barrier.
• Barracks: A large building or group of buildings used to house soldiers.
• Brushstroke: A mark made by a paintbrush.

C

• Ceasefire: A temporary suspension of fighting.
• Coalition: An alliance of political parties

The Arrival of the Muslims

The arrival of the Muslims on the Iberian Peninsula in the early 8th century is related to a civil war between the Visigoths when different factions fought to succeed to the throne. One of the opposing sides, formed by the opponents of King Rodrigo, decided to seek the help of Muslims who were in North Africa.
In 711, in response to this request for help, a Muslim army entered the Iberian Peninsula. In the same year, led by Tariq and Musa, it conquered King Rodrigo and began a rapid conquest of the Spanish territory.Tariq landed in Gibraltar in 711 at the head of an army of thousands of soldiers who were, for the most part, Berbers from North Africa.

The Battle of Guadalete

The Muslims easily defeated the Visigoths in... Continue reading "The Muslim Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula: Causes and Impact" »

After the failure of the six democratic years, Cánovas del Castillo, the Prime Minister, led the Restoration process. He proposed Alfonso XII, son of Isabel II, as king of Spain and after the pronunciamiento of Sagunto by Martínez Campos in 1874, he became king and accepted to be a constitutional monarch. Moreover, Cánovas became regent and established a new system, the Canovite System.

Canovas convoked elections, under the democratic suffrage of the 1869 constitution, to Cortes in order to legalise and define a new monarchy. One of the first measures of the new government was the suppression of the left wing parties and labour movement, only those who accepted the principles of the constitutional monarchy had the right to free activity.

The

Ascot Racecourse: A Royal Tradition

Ascot Racecourse is a prestigious British racecourse located in Ascot, Berkshire, renowned for horse racing. It was founded in 1711 by Queen Anne. Royal Ascot is the centrepiece of Ascot's year. Every year, Royal Ascot is attended by Queen Elizabeth II and other members of the British Royal Family, such as the Prince of Wales, arriving each day in a horse-drawn carriage.

Shrove Tuesday: Pancake Day Races

Shrove Tuesday, also known in some countries as Pancake Day, falls in February or March, preceding Ash Wednesday (the first day of Lent). It is celebrated in some countries by consuming pancakes. On Pancake Day, races are held in villages and towns across the United Kingdom. The tradition is said to have originated... Continue reading "Celebrated UK Traditions & Attractions" »

Reasons for the Emergence of the Cold War (1947-1991)

Root Causes

Revanchism and depression marked the society of the interwar period. The sanctions of the Treaty of Versailles and the consequences of the crash of 1929 favored the rise of dictatorships and the failure of democracies. Thus, certain foreign policies (Italy, Germany, and Japan) became radicalized by claiming their living space, international prestige, and improvement of the economy. This contrasted with the pacifist work of Pius XII that would not have an effect.

In a bid to achieve them, they opted for militarization. The economy would boost the arms industry, with the main powers responding poorly:

1. The United States of America would stay out.

2. The USSR would mistrust the West.

3. France would trust the British.

4. The United Kingdom would propose