Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Long term WWII

1. The impact of WW I. War reparations were paid by Germany. This caused resentment which later contributed to the rise of Nazi extremism. 2. The rise of fascism and nationalism. There was a great fear of a similar revolution that could happen in their countries, after the Russian revolution. Fascism, Communism and other authoritarian solutions were considered a good solution for those who feared the communist revolution. 3. Weakness of democracies. When Hitler began with his expansionism and rearmament, the democratic countries Britain and France considered avoiding a new war was their number one priority, so they didn't face Hitler with their military power. (appeasement policy). The League of Nations was completely ineffective.... Continue reading "Impact of WWII, Creation of United Nations, and Spanish Civil War" »

Summary of the Berlin Crisis: In 1945, the Allies decided to split Germany into four zones of occupation. The capital, Berlin, was also split into four zones. The USSR took huge reparations from its zone in eastern Germany, but Britain, France, and America tried to improve conditions in their zones.

In June 1948, Britain, France, and America united their zones into a new country, West Germany. On 23 June 1948, they introduced a new currency, which they said would help trade.

The next day, Stalin cut off all rail and road links to West Berlin - the Berlin Blockade. The West saw this as an attempt to starve Berlin into surrender, so they decided to supply West Berlin by air.

The Berlin Blockade lasted 318 days. During this time, 275,000 planes transported... Continue reading "Understanding the Berlin Crisis of 1948: Key Events and Impacts" »

The February Revolution and Dual Power (1917)

On February 23, 1917, a large demonstration occurred in Petrograd, quickly followed by a general strike and riots in the barracks. Facing widespread unrest, the Tsar abdicated, and a republic was proclaimed.

This new republic was headed by a Provisional Government, which promised to call constituent elections to establish Russia as a parliamentary democracy. The new government initiated political and social reforms, but crucially, they decided to remain committed to their allies in World War I.

The Provisional Government's Challenges

The commitment to the war made it difficult to improve the living conditions of the population and implement the anticipated land reform. Popular discontent grew, and the... Continue reading "The Russian Revolution: From Tsarism's Fall to the USSR" »

World War I: The Great War

Causes and Outbreak

World War I, known as the Great War in Britain, erupted in 1914 as a result of pre-existing alliances. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo triggered a chain of events. Austria-Hungary invaded Serbia, prompting Russia to mobilize in Serbia's defense. Germany, in turn, declared war on Russia and France. Britain, bound by treaty to France, joined the conflict.

First Phase (June 1914)

Despite declaring war on Germany, France and Britain initially refrained from attacking. Germany seized the initiative, executing the Schlieffen Plan. They invaded Belgium, intending to bypass French defenses and capture Paris.

Second Phase (Early 1916 - End 1917)

The war entered a phase... Continue reading "World War I: A Comprehensive Overview of the Great War" »

The French Revolution of 1789

C 1789: A Revolution Breaks Out

The Bourbon Dynasty in Spain and the War of Succession

The War of Spanish Succession (1700-1713)

Charles II died in 1700 appointing Philip of Bourbon as his successor. The other European countries did not accept Charles's will and the War of Spanish Succession began. This was an international conflict as well as an internal conflict.

Castile and France supported Philip V whereas the rest of European countries (Britain, the Dutch Republic, Portugal, and Austria) and the Crown of Aragon defended Archduke Charles of Habsburg.

Philip V defeated Valencia and Aragon in the battle of Almansa (1707) and took Catalonia in 1714 and Mallorca in 1715.

The international conflict changed when Charles of Habsburg became the German emperor and lost interest in... Continue reading "Bourbon Dynasty in Spain: War of Succession & 18th Century" »

The Early Modern Age: Defining Characteristics

The Early Modern Age spanned from the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 and concluded with the French Revolution in 1789. The transition from the previous era involved a slow, profound transformation across all levels: economic, social, political, and cultural.

Economic and Social Shifts

• Economic Changes: Significant growth occurred, marked by increased agricultural production, expansion of craftsmanship and trade, and the development of mercantile capitalism.
• Social Structure: The privileged estates remained the nobility and the clergy. However, the bourgeoisie gained considerable influence, particularly in urban centers.
• Urban Growth: Cities increased significantly in both number and size.

The Rise of

The League's Aims

The League of Nations was set up because President Wilson wanted this more than anything else.

He wanted the League to be a kind of ‘world parliament’, where nations would sort out their arguments.   He hoped this would stop wars.   But Wilson wanted to do more than just stop war; he wanted to make the world a better place.   He wanted the League to do things to improve people’s lives and jobs.   He wanted to improve public health, and to end slavery.

Wilson also hoped that the League would persuade the nations to agree to disarmament – to put down their weapons.   That would make war impossible.

Finally, Wilson thought that the League of Nations could enforce the Treaty of Versailles, and persuade... Continue reading "The main stages of cold war." »

Justinian and the Restoration of Roman Law

Justinian determined to restore the former glory of the empire by recovering the city of Rome. The lawyers he employed to compile the Corpus Juris Civilis came from the Eastern half of the Empire, and were Greek speakers.

Germanic Kingdoms and Roman Traditions

Germanic Tribes and Roman Influence

The major Germanic Tribes—Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Franks, and Burgundians—admired Roman traditions and were Christians.

Germanic peoples were ready to adapt many of the institutions with which they had come into contact; written law particularly impressed them. Many legal codes were written in Latin for Romans living under Germanic rule, such as the Edictum Theodorici, which also applied to Germans.

Legal Development