Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Conflicts with France

The conflict with France stemmed from a personal rivalry between Charles V and Francis I, King of France. Both monarchs aimed to control the same territories, leading to numerous confrontations and alliances. The rivalry saw significant victories and defeats for both sides, with the Battle of Pavia (1525) standing out as a pivotal moment.

The Ottoman Threat

Another challenge faced by Charles V was the Ottoman Empire, ruled by the formidable Suleiman the Magnificent. Suleiman's vast and prosperous empire, stretching from Asia to Africa and Europe, posed a significant threat on multiple fronts.

In the Mediterranean and North Africa, constant naval clashes erupted between Charles V and Suleiman's forces, resulting in the loss... Continue reading "The Reign of Charles V: Conflicts, Religions, and Dynasties" »

Between 1814-1815 the powers that defeated Napoleon (United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, and Russia) met at the Congress of Vienna, with two objectives:

• Restore the old regime

They returned to their thrones the monarchs that Napoleon had deposed.

• Rebuild the political map of Europe

France returned to its limits of 1791 and the territories were divided, without counting on some towns.

It was agreed to convene congresses, where diplomatically conflicts between countries would be resolved and intervention was authorized in those countries threatened by a revolution.

• Two alliances were created to ensure the established order:

• The Holy Alliance formed by Austria, Russia, and Prussia
• The Quadruple Alliance formed by Austria, Russia, Prussia, and United Kingdom

New

1. Iron Curtain: Division of Europe into mostly democratic (west) and communist (east)

2. Containment: Foreign policy, Harry Truman blocked Soviet influence to stop the spread of communism

3. Brinkmanship: Policy under Eisenhower where our country would go to the edge of war

4. Castro: Cuban Communist dictator

5. Nikita Khrushchev: Took over after Stalin

6. JFK: President 1960-1963 and during Cuban missile crisis

7. Douglas MacArthur: General of UN troops in Korean War

8. Domino Theory: Idea that if one country becomes Communist, others will follow

9. UN: Organization of nations to solve world problems

10. Marshall Plan: US assisted West Europe by providing food, machinery, and materials

11. Cold War: Communist (USSR) vs democracy (America)

12. Warsaw Pact: Alliance of USSR with other Eastern

The Spanish Restoration Period

Alfonso XII and Maria Cristina

The Restoration began when Alfonso XII (son of Isabel II) returned the Bourbon dynasty to the Spanish throne in 1875.

• The conservative politician Cánovas del Castillo convinced Isabel II to abdicate in favor of her son Alfonso.
• This intervention was supported by the middle class and the army.

Key events:

1. Alfonso signed the Sandhurst Manifesto, in which he promised a constitutional government.
2. A military pronunciamiento (led by General Martínez Campos) proclaimed Alfonso king.
3. Alfonso XII died in 1885, before his legitimate son Alfonso XIII was born.
4. His widow, Maria Cristina, served as regent until Alfonso XIII came of age (1885-1902).

The Political System of the Restoration

The political... Continue reading "Spain's Restoration: Politics and Challenges" »

Social and Political Dynamics in Restoration Spain

The Workers' Movement

The workers’ movement gained strength after the Constitution of 1876 recognized the freedom of association. Anarchism gained support among Catalan factory workers and Andalusian peasants. The socialists founded the trade union UGT in 1888, which was strongest in Madrid, Asturias, and the Basque Country.

Regionalism and Nationalism

Regionalism and nationalism originated as a reaction against the centralist policies of the Restoration.

• Catalan Nationalists: Sought autonomy for Catalonia and demanded Catalan be decreed the official language of Catalonia (Bases of Manresa, 1892).
• Basque Nationalists: Defended their fueros (traditional rights) and traditions.
• Galician Nationalists:

Contrasting Perspectives on International Development

William Easterly

Background

• Born in 1957; PhD in Economics from MIT.
• Professor of Economics at NYU and prominent development economist.
• Author of books critiquing traditional foreign aid approaches, such as "The White Man's Burden" and "The Elusive Quest for Growth."

Key Arguments

• Skeptical of top-down, expert-driven development strategies.
• Emphasizes the importance of local ownership, accountability, and market-based solutions.
• Argues that aid can often be ineffective and even harmful if not implemented properly.

Richard Dowden

Background

• Born in 1949; British journalist and expert on African affairs.
• Executive Director of the Royal African Society.
• Author of "Africa: Altered States, Ordinary Miracles.

The Thirty Years' War: Origins and Escalation

The Thirty Years' War began as an internal revolt within the Holy Roman Empire, pitting Protestant Princes against the new Catholic Emperor, Ferdinand II.

The Spark: Bohemian Revolt

It all started in the Kingdom of Bohemia (modern-day Czech Republic) when Ferdinand II, a Catholic, was elected king in 1617. He soon began to restrict the religious freedom of the predominantly Protestant population by closing and forbidding the construction of Protestant churches. This made him very unpopular, especially among the Protestant nobles.

The Defenestration of Prague

In 1618, a group of Protestant nobles captured the king's representatives in Prague and threw them out of the palace window! Miraculously, they... Continue reading "The Thirty Years' War: Causes, Conflicts, and Consequences" »

Colonial Regions of America

• New England: Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire
• Middle: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware
• Southern: Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia

Freedoms in Colonial America

• Religious Freedom: The right to choose a religion (or no religion) without interference by the government.
• Political Freedom: The right to express one’s views about public matters and the right to support or oppose public policies.
• Economic Freedom/Opportunity: The right of every human to control his or her own labor and property.
• Social Mobility: A person's ability to move to a different social class (higher, middle, lower).

Timeline of the American Revolution

1754: French and Indian War

Fighting between... Continue reading "American Revolution: Causes and Key Events 1754-1776" »

That-Clauses in English

Different Kinds and Functions of That-Clauses

Different kinds of that-clauses serve different functions in the English language.

Post-Predicate That-Clauses

That-clauses in the post-predicate position are the most common type. These clauses typically report human speech and thoughts.

Example: I think Stuart’s gone a bit mad.

Post-predicate that-clauses controlled by adjectives are less common than those controlled by verbs.

Subject Predicative That-Clauses

When a that-clause serves as a subject predicative to a copular verb, it usually has one of three functions:

1. Describing a problem: Example: The only problem may be that the compound is difficult to remove after use.
2. Presenting reasons, results, or conclusions: Example: Our