Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Democracy in the Middle East and North Africa

The Role of Islam and Culture

Can democracy coexist with Islam in the MENA region? While some argue that Sharia law should be considered, the imposition of Islam on minorities raises concerns. A study by Jamal and Telsser found that both secular and Muslim individuals identify as democratic, suggesting that cultural factors alone may not hinder democracy.

Economic Development and Inequality

Applying Lipset's theory, which links economic prosperity with democratic sustainability, we see that some Arab countries are wealthy, even rivaling established democracies. However, per capita income doesn't reflect wealth distribution. The UN Human Development Index, which considers factors like urbanization and... Continue reading "Democracy in the Middle East and North Africa: An Analysis" »

Alloy

A substance composed of metals melted together.

Evolution

A process of change in a particular direction.

Universe

The whole body of things observed or assumed.

Religion

The service and worship of God or the supernatural.

Mankind

The human race.

Cultivate

The preparation of the raising of crops.

Western Hemisphere

The half of the earth that includes North America, Central America, and South America.

Oligarchy

A government in which power is in the hands of a few.

Science

Knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general laws, especially as obtained and tested through the scientific method.

Caesar

Any of the Roman emperors succeeding Augustus Caesar.

Tribune

An official in ancient Rome with the function of protecting the interests of plebeian citizens... Continue reading "Definitions of Key Terms in History, Religion, and Society" »

18th Century Economic Policies

Physiocracy: This economic theory, championed by François Quesnay, posited that a nation's wealth originated from the land, encompassing agriculture and mining. Land provided sustenance and raw materials, which artisans transformed into manufactured goods. Merchants then sold these goods, generating wealth. Economic Liberalism: This doctrine, developed by Adam Smith in his seminal work, The Wealth of Nations, asserted that individual effort aimed at maximizing profit is the source of wealth. Smith argued that a nation's wealth, accumulated through individual endeavors, benefits society as a whole. He advocated for minimal state intervention, proposing that supply and demand naturally regulate production, and prices... Continue reading "18th Century Economic and Political Transformations" »

The Cold War was a long period of tension between the democracies of the Western World and the communist countries of Eastern Europe. The West was led by the United States and Eastern Europe was led by the Soviet Union. These two countries became known as superpowers. Although the two superpowers never officially declared war on each other, they fought indirectly in proxy wars, the arms race, and the space race.

The Iron Curtain and Germany

It was to divide Germany. The Western zone was controlled by the USA, Britain, and France, and the Eastern zone by the USSR. Stalin blocked the Allied zone, and the Americans sent resources by air.

Space Race Milestones

• Neil Armstrong was the first man on the moon on July 20, 1969
• Yuri Gagarin was the first man

Meiji Reforms

The Meiji Restoration, also known as the Meiji Reform, was an event that restored practical imperial rule to the Empire of Japan between 1866 and 1869 under Emperor Meiji. Although there were ruling Emperors before the Meiji Restoration, the events restored practical abilities and consolidated the political system under the Emperor of Japan. The goals of the restored government were expressed by the new Emperor in the Charter Oath. The Restoration led to enormous changes in Japan's political and social structure and spanned both the late Edo period and the beginning of the Meiji period.

• End of neo-confucianism and feudalism
• Modernisation (railways, telegraph, universal education)
• Widespread westernisation
• Remodelling of public and

The Meaning of Enlightenment

The Enlightenment refers to the use of reason in shaping people’s ideas about society and politics.

Key Enlightenment Ideas

1. The ability to reason is unique to humans.
2. Reason can be used to solve problems and improve people’s lives.
3. Reason can free people from ignorance.
4. The natural world is governed by laws that can be discovered through reason.
5. Natural laws also govern human behavior.
6. Governments should reflect natural laws and encourage education and debate.

John Locke's View on Government

Locke believed government should be a contract between a ruler and the people. This contract binds both sides, limiting the ruler’s power. Locke also asserted that all people possess certain natural rights, such as life, liberty,... Continue reading "Enlightenment Ideas: Locke, Rousseau, and Democratic Documents" »

THOREAU’S CIVIL DISOBEDIENCE

Perhaps the most famous text in the literature of romantic reform is Henry David Thoreau’s essay, Resistance to Civil Government (1849), better known as Civil Disobedience. The occasion of the essay was Thoreau’s refusal to pay a poll tax in the town of Concord in protest of the United States war with Mexico (1846– 1848). Thoreau regarded the war as a conspiracy to seize Mexican lands and enable the expansion of southern slavery. Thoreau was jailed for his refusal to pay the tax. His essay is a defense of his actions as well as a treatise on the moral and political responsibilities of the citizen. In Civil Disobedience, Thoreau argues that, in an ideal world, governments would be rendered unnecessary;

MARGARET

Fascism in Italy

Causes of Fascism

Dissatisfaction with the peace agreements established after the First World War and the post-war situation. Unemployment, inflation, and social unrest expressed through revolutionary movements that frightened conservative sectors of society.

Fascism was created by Benito Mussolini, who founded the National Fascist Party in 1921 using paramilitary groups (which were illegal) such as the Blackshirts. He gained support from large landowners, the small bourgeoisie, and Emmanuel III. In 1922, the intervention of the Italian Combat Squad against the trade unions and workers' strikes allowed Mussolini to claim power. To pressure the government, he organised a March on Rome with the Blackshirts.

Once he was in power,... Continue reading "Fascism and Nazism: Origins, Rise, and Impact" »

The Spanish Restoration (1874-1931): Bourbon Monarchy

The end of the First Spanish Republic coincided with the Carlist Wars and uprisings. Cánovas del Castillo formed the Alfonsist party, aiming to restore the Bourbon monarchy with Alfonso XII. After Isabel II abdicated, Cánovas became Alfonso XII's tutor and sent him to England. The Sandhurst Manifesto declared Spain a constitutional monarchy, followed by the pronunciamiento of Sagunto in 1874. Alfonso XII became king in 1875.

Cánovas and the Canovite Settlement

As a deputy in the 1869 Cortes, Cánovas opposed the 1869 Constitution, finding the liberty of religious practice unacceptable, and he also opposed universal suffrage. He admired the English political system for its stability and lack... Continue reading "Spanish Restoration: Bourbon Monarchy and Political Shifts" »