Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Economic Liberalism and Chartism

Economic liberalism is a doctrine that proposes favorable development through the free market and minimal state intervention in economic affairs. Proponents wanted the recognition of private property and individual profit.

Chartism was a movement that petitioned Parliament, demanding political reforms, universal manhood suffrage, laws to protect workers' interests, and salaries for Members of Parliament (MPs). It was active from 1838 to 1848.

Population Growth and the Industrial Revolution

Population growth encouraged agricultural and industrial development because there was an increased demand for food and manufactured products. The Agricultural Revolution enabled population growth and industrial development because... Continue reading "Economic Liberalism, Chartism, and Industrial Revolutions" »

Colonization of the New World: Spain, France, and England

Spain's Colonial Ambitions

Spain had three main goals: to spread Christianity, to build a powerful empire, and to acquire wealth. These are often referred to as the "3 G's": God, Gold, and Glory.

• God: Spain sent missionaries to convert the Native Americans to Christianity. They believed that Christianized natives would be more loyal, helping Spain establish authority.
• Gold: Spain sought resources like gold, silver, and other precious metals to exploit for their benefit.
• Glory: Spain aimed to build the strongest empire and dominate the New World.

England's Colonial Expansion

As the English economy weakened and social tensions rose between classes, colonizing the Americas seemed like an escape.... Continue reading "Colonization of the New World: Spain, France, England" »

Primo de Rivera

In 1923 another pronunciamiento took place: General Miguel Primo de Rivera came to power with the consent of the king. Public disorder was rampant, and the system wasn't working. Primo de Rivera had been in Catalonia as Captain General. They thought he could bring calm and peace.

Primo de Rivera wanted to regenerate the system and later he would give the power back again. It did not work. He stayed for longer than promised and became unpopular. He tried to start a political party, the Unión Patriótica.

His dictatorship can be divided into two periods: Military Directory (1923-1925) and Civil Directory (1925-1930). He had great success at the beginning. Along with the French, the Spanish Army defeated the Moroccan rebel Abd-el-... Continue reading "The Second Spanish Republic: From Dictatorship to Civil War" »

The Opening of Japan to Trade in the 19th Century

The United States and the Opening to Japan, 1853: On July 8, 1853, American Commodore Matthew Perry led his four ships into the harbor at Tokyo Bay, seeking to re-establish, for the first time in over 200 years, regular trade and discourse between Japan and the Western world.

Why Was Commodore Perry Sent to Japan?

Perry, on behalf of the U.S. government, forced Japan to enter into trade with the United States and demanded a treaty permitting trade and the opening of Japanese ports to U.S. merchant ships. The Japanese had no navy with which to defend themselves, and thus they had to agree to the demand.

Italian Unification: Causes and Effects

What Caused the Italian Unification?

Those who stood for... Continue reading "19th-Century Unifications: Japan, Italy, Germany & USA" »

The Korean War (1950-1953)

Why?

After World War II, Korea was divided along the 38th parallel. North Korea, aiming for reunification under communist rule, invaded the South.

Who?

• North Korea (supported by China and the USSR)
• South Korea (supported by the UN, primarily the USA and Great Britain)

Outcome:

The war ended in a stalemate, with the border remaining largely unchanged. The Korean War is significant as the only Cold War conflict that remains unresolved. North Korea's nuclear ambitions continue to pose a threat today.

The Vietnam War (1954-1975)

Why?

During the decolonization of French Indochina after World War II, Vietnam was divided into communist North Vietnam and capitalist South Vietnam. The possibility of South Vietnam falling to communism... Continue reading "Understanding the Cold War: Key Conflicts and Causes" »

Into how many categories the religious sects that originated during the 6th century B.C. can be divided? Ans.

The religious sects of the 6th century B.C. can be divided into two categories:

1. The faiths which were openly against Vedic religion
2. The faiths which did not oppose Vedic religion openly but propagated new principles venerating one or the other old divinity.

What do you mean by “Dharma Chakra Pravartana”? Ans.

Dharma Chakra Pravartana means ‘sitting in motion the wheel of Dharma’. The first religious discourse or sermon delivered by Mahatma Buddha after attaining enlightenment at Mrig dav or Deer Park of Sarnath near Varanasi, is known as ‘Maha chakra Pravartana’

Mention the various incarnations of Vishnu according to Vaishnavism.

Nazi Control in Germany: The Police State

The Gestapo

The Gestapo, under Reinhard Heydrich's command, was the most feared force by ordinary German citizens. Gestapo agents had sweeping powers, including arresting citizens on suspicion and sending them to concentration camps without trial. Fear of the Gestapo led to widespread informing on each other among ordinary Germans.

The Police and Courts

The police and courts also played a role in propping up the Nazi dictatorship. High-ranking Nazis were appointed to top positions in local police forces, reporting directly to Himmler. The police engaged in political snooping in addition to their regular law and order duties, and they were instructed to ignore crimes committed by Nazi agents. The Nazis also... Continue reading "Nazi Control in Germany: The Police State and Propaganda Machine" »

Franco’s Dictatorship

1. Franco: Caudillo of Spain

He had all the power. He was Head of State, Head of Government, and the Supreme General of the Armed Forces. There was no division of power in Spain.

2. NO-DO

Noticiarios y documentales (NO-DO) was a state-controlled series of cinema newsreels in Spain (1943-1981). The NO-DO was watched by all citizens at the cinema, and it was full of one-sided (national) propaganda.

3. Sección Femenina

Sección Femenina was the female branch of the Falange, which guided the life of women.

4. Propaganda

Propaganda was strongly used by the National side, and thanks to the one used for the Referendum of 1947 (regarding the law of succession), Franco got power for life. Apart from that, he was given the right to choose... Continue reading "Francoist Spain: Dictatorship, Memory, and History" »

International Agreements of the 1920s

France's Treaties (1920)

Countries: Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia.
Goal: To protect France from future German attacks by creating military and friendship treaties with Germany's neighbors.
Outcome: Successful.

Geneva Protocol (1924)

Countries: Britain and France.
Goal: To strengthen the League of Nations' authority in disputes by requiring members to seek League arbitration and accept its decisions. Armed forces could be used against aggressors.
Outcome: Not successful.

Dawes Plan (1924)

Countries: USA, Britain, France, Belgium, Germany.
Goal: To address Germany's economic collapse and inability to pay reparations. The plan extended Germany's reparation payment period, offered American loans... Continue reading "International Agreements of the 1920s: A Path to Peace?" »