Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of History

Sculpture

New forms and materials. Subject matters no longer needed to be noble. Materials were frequently taken from industrial waste, such as iron and steel. Ex. Alexander Calder designed mobile sculptures always in motion. In painting (innovative movements) Surrealism: Inspiration in the subconscious and in dreams. Use absurd and irrational elements as subject matter. Dadaism: Suggested destruction of art. Marcel Duchamp proposed ready-made art. He transformed everyday objects into art by displaying them in an art gallery. He believed art was in the attitude of the spectator as much as in the object itself. Abstract movement: Painters explored the possibility of creating works that had no reference to the outside world. Colour and shape were... Continue reading "Innovative Movements in Art and Politics" »

Henry VIII (1491-1547)

England's Second Tudor Monarch

Henry VIII ruled England from 1509 and is best known for his six marriages and his efforts to annul his first marriage to Catherine of Aragon. When the Pope, the head of the Catholic Church, refused to allow the divorce, Henry challenged the Church's authority. He declared himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England through the Act of Supremacy (1534), solidifying his power and control over religious matters in England.

The Dissolution of the Monasteries

Henry VIII appointed Thomas Cromwell as his chief minister. Cromwell orchestrated the dissolution of Roman Catholic monasteries and convents between 1536 and 1540. During this period, Thomas More was beheaded for refusing to accept... Continue reading "A Brief History of England: From Henry VIII to the Virginia Company" »

Prelude to Revolution

In February 1917, a massive demonstration in Petrograd sparked a general strike and barracks riots. The Tsar abdicated, and a provisional government, dominated by bourgeois parties, took power.

The Provisional Government

The provisional government promised to establish a parliamentary democracy but remained committed to the war effort. This hindered promised reforms and exacerbated popular discontent.

Rise of the Soviets

The Soviets, workers' councils, demanded the government's dismissal and withdrawal from the war. The unity that had fueled the revolution began to fracture, creating a duality of power between the provisional government and the Soviets.

The Bolshevik Revolution

On October 25, 1917, the Bolsheviks, supported by... Continue reading "The Russian Revolution: From Tsarist Autocracy to Bolshevik Rule" »

The Rise of the Spanish Empire

The Catholic Monarchs (Late 15th Century)

At the end of the 15th century, the Catholic Monarchs established an authoritarian monarchy in the Iberian Peninsula, similar to those in France and England.

Dynastic Union (1469)

The kingdoms of Castile and Aragon united through a dynastic union in 1469. However, each kingdom retained its distinct laws and institutions, forming the Hispanic Monarchy.

Domestic Reforms

• Centralization of Power: The monarchs weakened the power of the nobility by creating a permanent army, gaining control of military orders and their lands, and establishing a royal treasury to increase tax revenue.
• Councils of Experts: Councils were formed to advise on matters related to territories, military orders,

October Revolution: Rise of the Bolsheviks in Russia

Kerensky's government aimed to establish a parliamentary republic in Russia. However, the Bolsheviks and the Petrograd Soviet opposed these plans, seeking to create a new Republic of Soviets.

The Revolutionary Days

The Bolshevik party had been banned, and Lenin was in exile. Despite this, Lenin remained determined to seize power, and the Soviets planned the insurrection. The victory in Petrograd was decisive, and the revolution subsequently spread to Moscow and several industrialized areas.

First Revolutionary Measures

The Second Congress of Soviets overthrew the provisional government and approved the formation of a council headed by Lenin, which became the first government of workers and peasants.... Continue reading "The October Revolution: Rise of the Bolsheviks in Russia" »

Environmental Challenges and Their Impact

The Devastating Consequences of Environmental Degradation

In recent decades, environmental problems such as excessive pollution, deforestation, and the depletion of natural resources have had devastating consequences. Many species are endangered, and others have already disappeared.

Taking Action for a Sustainable Future

We can take steps in our daily lives to mitigate these issues:

• Reduce, Reuse, Recycle: Minimize consumption and prioritize recycling and reuse.
• Government Regulation: Advocate for stricter laws to curb pollution and protect natural resources.
• Fire Prevention and Accountability: Implement measures to control fires and hold those responsible for environmental damage accountable.

We must recognize... Continue reading "Environmental Challenges and Societal Shifts in the Modern Era" »