Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Spanish American Independence Movements

Stages of Independence

• First Stage: Juntas were established in America, fostering a desire for independence.
• Second Stage: Ferdinand VII refused to grant autonomy to the colonies. Figures like Simón Bolívar, Antonio José de Sucre, and José de San Martín, with support from the USA and UK, led military victories against Spain.
• By 1815, Spain had lost nearly all its American territories.

The Isabeline Period in Spain

Regency Period: Ferdinand VII's Aftermath

• Government was exercised by a regent after the death of her father, Ferdinand VII.

• The First Carlist War

  • The First Carlist War erupted due to disputes over the succession to the throne.
  • Supporters of Don Carlos, primarily absolutists, fought against Isabel'

Ingrid Jonker stands as one of South Africa's most influential poets, not only making waves in literature but also becoming a profound symbol of resistance against apartheid. Born on September 19, 1933, in the Northern Cape town of Douglas, Jonker grew up during the oppressive rise of apartheid. Her early life was marked by personal hardship, particularly the loss of her mother at the age of ten, a tragedy that deeply influenced much of her later work.

Early Life and the Shadow of Apartheid

Her father, Abraham Jonker, held a high-ranking position in the apartheid government, serving as the head of South Africa’s Board of Censors. This created deep tension between them, as Ingrid vehemently rejected her father’s political beliefs. Instead,... Continue reading "Ingrid Jonker: South Africa's Voice of Resistance Against Apartheid" »

Historical Source Evaluation

Understanding Historical Source Evaluation

Timeline of Key Events (American & French Revolutions)

• American War of Independence: 1775 - 1783 (French involvement)
• Assembly of Notables: 22 Feb - 25 May 1787
• Lit De Justice: 6 Aug 1787, 8 May 1788
• Day of Tiles: 10 June 1788
• Harvest Crisis: 1788
• Pamphlet War: 1788-1789
• Cahiers De Doléances: 1789 (List of grievances)
• Rural Revolt: March 1789
• Réveillon Riots: 27-28 April 1789
• Estates-General: May 1789
• Declaration of the National Assembly: 17 June 1789
• Tennis Court Oath: 20 June 1789
• Royal Session: 23 June 1789
• Necker’s Dismissal: 11 July 1789
• Fall of the Bastille: 14 July 1789
• Municipal Revolutions: 13-17 July 1789
• The Great Fear: 20 July - 6 Aug 1789
• Night of 4 August: Abolition of

The 9/11 Attacks and the Ensuing War on Terror

On the morning of September 11, 2001, the world experienced a profound shift. Terrorists hijacked four airplanes, resulting in the deaths of nearly 3,000 people. This catastrophic event was a deeply shocking moment for the United States and the international community.

The "War on Terror" refers to the comprehensive military and political responses initiated by the United States following the 9/11 attacks. This global campaign commenced with the war in Afghanistan and later expanded to include the war in Iraq, alongside numerous other operations aimed at combating terrorism worldwide. Understanding this period is crucial for comprehending the significant transformations in U.S. foreign policy and... Continue reading "9/11's Enduring Impact: U.S. Policy and the War on Terror" »

American Space Travel: Milestones and Missions

In 1958, the U.S. Government formed the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to be responsible for the American space program. However, the Americans weren't the first people to fly into space. In 1961, a Russian cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, became the first person to fly around the Earth. His flight took 108 minutes.

In 1961, President Kennedy challenged NASA to send a man to the Moon and return him safely to Earth. In 1969, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins started their journey to the Moon in Apollo 11. On July 20th, 1969, the entire world watched as Neil Armstrong became the first man to walk on the Moon.

In 1996, NASA sent a spacecraft to Mars, named Mars Pathfinder.... Continue reading "Pioneers, Pirates, and Paranormal Tales" »

US and Global Political Developments

Senate Democrats and the Filibuster

After making a deal with Republicans over the filibuster at the beginning of the current session, some Senate Democrats are threatening once more to eliminate the procedural tactic.

Texas and Driver's Permits for Undocumented Immigrants

The amendment was a bill by Rep. Roberto Alonzo, D-Dallas, that would allow undocumented immigrants to have driver's permits for the purpose of purchasing insurance.

President Obama Hosts Naturalization Ceremony

In a Fourth of July ceremony at the White House, brimming with political undertones, President Obama hosted a naturalization ceremony for more than two dozen active-duty service members.

Italy's Presidential Election

Italy's Parliament... Continue reading "US and Global Political Developments in Recent Years" »

University Baseball Team 2025 Season Schedule

All times Eastern. An asterisk (*) denotes a conference game.

February 2025 Games

• Friday, February 13: Seton Hall (Chapel Hill) – 3 p.m.
• Saturday, February 14: Seton Hall (Chapel Hill) – 2 p.m.
• Sunday, February 15: Seton Hall (Chapel Hill) – 1 p.m.
• Friday, February 20: UCLA (Chapel Hill) – 3 p.m.
• Saturday, February 21: UCLA (Chapel Hill) – 2 p.m.
• Sunday, February 22: UCLA (Chapel Hill) – 1 p.m.
• Tuesday, February 24: St. John’s (Chapel Hill) – 3 p.m.
• Wednesday, February 25: Winthrop (Chapel Hill) – 3 p.m.
• Friday, February 27: Rhode Island (Chapel Hill) – 3 p.m.
• Saturday, February 28: Rhode Island (Chapel Hill) – 2 p.m.

March 2025 Games

• Sunday, March 1: Rhode Island (Chapel Hill) – 1 p.m.

The Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939)

Proclaimed after King Alfonso XIII went into exile.

First president: Niceto Alcalá-Zamora; government led by Manuel Azaña.

Key reforms:

Education: More public, secular, and free schools; aimed to reduce illiteracy.

Church-State separation: Religion removed from schools (secularization).

Women’s rights: Women gained the right to vote in 1933.

Land reform: Attempt to redistribute land from large landowners to poor farmers—slow and controversial.

• Opposition: The Church, army, landowners, and right-wing groups opposed the reforms, increasing social tension.

Main Political Parties

Left-wing:

CNT: Anarchist; anti-state, pro-worker strikes.

PCE: Communist; inspired by the USSR, promoted proletarian dictatorship.... Continue reading "Understanding the Spanish Civil War: A Concise Analysis" »

The American Revolution: Q&A

Key Events and Figures

1. Purpose of the Declaration

The main purpose of the Declaration of Independence was to declare the separation of the United States from Britain.

2. The Patriot Spy

Nathan Hale was the patriot spy during the fight for New York.

3. Turning Point Battle

The Battle of Saratoga was a major turning point in the Revolution in the Middle States.

4. First Treaty of Alliance

France was the first country to sign a treaty of alliance with the U.S.

5. Sections of the Declaration

The Declaration of Independence is divided into the Preamble and three main sections that state some general ideas about society and government.

6. Native American Actions

Most Native American groups sided with the British during the... Continue reading "American Revolution: Key Battles, Figures, and Impact" »

Madrid's Urban Evolution: Walls and Planning

Initial Urban Planning and Context

José López Sallaberry and Francisco Andrés Octavio created the initial layout of the Gran Vía in 1910, which included the relocation of the Cibeles Fountain.

Olgyay's diagram shows the type of materials and construction systems suitable for achieving thermal comfort, taking into account the external climatic conditions.

The Foundations of Mayrit (Arab Madrid)

The Mayrit of the Arabs

• Origin: Madrid (Mayrit) was originally an Arab settlement, established around 850 by order of the Umayyad emir Muhammad I.
• Fortifications: The initial defensive structure included a fortress and a military citadel. The Arab wall, remnants of which can be seen near the Almudena Cathedral,