Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

Artistic Masterpieces & Cultural Venues

Famous Paintings of the World

• Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci

  Value: This painting is a symbol of the Renaissance and reflects the genius of da Vinci and the mystery of the female portrait.

• The Starry Night by Vincent van Gogh

  Value: It shows emotional perception of nature and is important for understanding Post-Impressionism.

• Guernica by Pablo Picasso

  Value: This painting symbolizes anti-war protest and reflects the horror of the bombing of Guernica in 1937.

Famous Paintings of Russia

• The Ninth Wave by Ivan Aivazovsky

  Value: This painting shows the beauty of Russian seas and expresses the strong character of the Russian spirit.

• Morning in a Pine Forest by Ivan Shishkin

  Value: It illustrates the beauty of Russian

Among the various factors that contributed to the outbreak of World War II, the failure of the League of Nations stands out as a crucial enabler of international conflict. While several elements—including the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the Great Depression, the rise of fascism, and Hitler's personality—played significant roles, the inability of the League of Nations to maintain peace and facilitate cooperation among nations fundamentally exacerbated tensions leading to the war.

The League of Nations: A Key Factor in WWII's Outbreak

League of Nations' Failures

• Origins and Aims: Established in 1920 following World War I, the League of Nations aimed to prevent future conflicts through diplomacy and collective security. Yet, it was

The Second Republic of Spain (1931-1936)

The Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed in 1931 after the departure of King Alfonso XIII following municipal elections largely won by Republican candidates. The Republic represented a significant shift towards modernization and social reform, driven primarily by workers and leftist parties.

Key Events of the Second Republic:

• April 1931: The Second Republic is proclaimed, and Alfonso XIII goes into exile. (PSOE - Spanish Socialist Workers' Party)
• December 1931: The Republican Constitution is approved.
• November 1933: Right-wing parties win general elections. (CEDA - Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right-wing Groups)
• February 1936: The Popular Front (a coalition of left-wing parties) wins the general elections.

The Rise of Mesopotamian Civilization

On the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the main urban settlements that were to play a leading role in the three millennia of Mesopotamian history emerged. The periodic overflowing of their banks irrigated and enriched the surrounding land, allowing intensive agricultural exploitation. This favored the appearance of stable settlements and their development. Cities such as Uruk, Ur, Lagash, Assur, Mari, and Babylon, among many others, arose, governed independently from a temple-palace.

Mesopotamian Society and Governance

The temple-palace organized the economy and held the political and military monopoly, as it was where the production and surplus from their economic activities were stored. Society... Continue reading "Mesopotamian Civilization: Society, Economy, Religion" »

Lenin's Foundation of Soviet Power

Lenin and Stalin were both central figures in Soviet history, shaping the course of the state's political development through authoritarian rule. Lenin, the founder of Soviet Russia, built the foundation for a centralized one-party state, justified by his interpretation of Marxism and the "dictatorship of the proletariat." He exercised political authority through the establishment of key structures like the Soviets, the Cheka (secret police), and the Red Army. Lenin used political repression, such as the Red Terror, to maintain control, and introduced War Communism followed by the New Economic Policy (NEP) to stabilize the economy. Though he centralized power, Lenin maintained a more consultative leadership... Continue reading "Lenin vs Stalin: Soviet Rule Compared" »

The Cold War: Key Policies and Events

The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies. Here's a look at some key events and policies:

The Truman Doctrine

Introduced in 1947 by President Harry Truman, the Truman Doctrine aimed to defend democracies against the spread of communism.

The Marshall Plan

Also introduced in 1947, the Marshall Plan was designed to help European countries rebuild their economies after World War II.

NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization

Established in 1949, NATO is a military alliance between the USA and Western Bloc countries.

The Warsaw Pact

Formed in 1955, the Warsaw Pact was a military alliance between the USSR and Eastern Bloc countries, including... Continue reading "Cold War: Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan, and Key Events" »

Riba's Contribution to Poverty

Riba (usury) exacerbates poverty by exploiting people's wealth. It is a significant factor in rising prices and economic recession. Furthermore, it diminishes charitable acts and cooperation within society. From a moral standpoint, it strips human actions of their blessings. Borrowers often struggle to repay loans, ultimately leading to increased interest and indebtedness.

Risks of Accusing Chaste Women of Adultery

Accusing a chaste woman of adultery is an extremely serious offense and constitutes slander. Such accusations jeopardize her reputation and honor, leading to defamation within the community. They can also severely damage families, promote immorality, and foster animosity among people.

Benefits of Zakat

Napoleon

In 1802, Napoleon was named First Consul for life after his victory in Italy. In 1804, he was declared Emperor. He established the Civil Code, covering marriage, divorce, education, and inheritance.

Napoleon conquered many areas of Europe and spread Enlightened policies, but Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain tried to prevent it. Napoleon also had many problems when he invaded Spain and Russia. Finally, Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.

Napoleon in Spain

Napoleon's Occupation of Spain

Charles IV and his minister Manuel Godoy supported Napoleon against Britain, but Spain was defeated at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805).

In 1807, Spain and France signed the Treaty of Fontainebleau, by which Charles IV let the French troops... Continue reading "Napoleon's Reign and the Spanish War of Independence" »

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1630-1680)

Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1630-1680) was a renowned Indian warrior king and the founder of the Maratha Empire in western India. He is celebrated for his valor, strategic military tactics, and administrative prowess. Here are some key highlights of his life and legacy:

Early Life

Born on February 19, 1630, in the Shivneri Fort, near Pune, to Shahaji Bhosale and Jijabai, Shivaji was deeply influenced by his mother and his tutor, Dadaji Kondadev. His upbringing instilled a strong sense of justice and a desire for independence.

Military Achievements

Shivaji is known for his guerrilla warfare tactics and successfully challenging the mighty Mughal Empire and other regional powers like the Adil Shahi Sultanate.... Continue reading "Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj: Founder of the Maratha Empire" »