Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The French Revolution: Key Stages and Causes

The Four Stages of the French Revolution

1st Stage: The Moderate Phase (1789–1791)

• Meeting of the Estates-General
• Fall of the Bastille
• Development of a Constitution and Bill of Rights

2nd Stage: The Radical Phase (1792–1794)

• Execution of Louis XVI
• Rise of Maximilien Robespierre
• The Reign of Terror

3rd Stage: The Conservative Phase (1795–1799)

• Period of reaction against the violence of the Revolution
• Establishment of the Directory

4th Stage: The Napoleonic Phase (1799–1815)

• Rise of Napoleon: Dictator to Emperor
• France builds an empire
• Collapse of Napoleon’s Empire

French Society Divided: The Three Estates

French society was divided into three estates, which determined a person’s legal rights and status:... Continue reading "The French Revolution Timeline: Causes, Stages, and Impact" »

Imperialism and Its Consequences

Imperialism: The European colonial expansion of the struggle between capitalist nations for the domination of the system.

Jewel in the Crown: The possession of India by the English empire, leading it to consolidate itself as a great imperial power.

Mother Country: The imperialist state that depends on a colony and which occupied all aspects of power, such as political, military, economic, cultural, and social power.

Tribal: Groups of elders led by chiefs who usually shared the same customs and beliefs.

Trenches: Holes in the ground where soldiers shot and defended themselves in World War I.

Colonies: Territories where weak local power allowed the mother countries to control all aspects of the country: economic, political,... Continue reading "Imperialism and the First World War: Impacts and Aftermath" »

According to this text are all the men equal in rights? What are the rights of man according to the text?

Yes, they are because says that all men are born free.

What is the origin of sovereignty according to the text? According to the text, can you be punished for something that is not forbidden by law? Who can take part in politics (make laws) according to the text?

The origin of sovereignty is the nation (line 6). No, you can be punished for something that is not forbidden by law (lines 11-12). All the citizens can take part in politics (lines 14-15).

Do you know during which phase of the French Revolution was signed this text: National Assembly, Constitutional Monarchy, First French Republic or Directory? Do you think that the principles of

The Popular Front in Spain: February-July 1936

Formation and Political Context

In February 1936, elections took place in Spain, following the dissolution of the Cortes by President Alcalá-Zamora, who believed the Republic needed to shift towards the center. The preceding four years had seen a political pendulum swing: the first two years were governed by left-wing parties, while the subsequent two were dominated by the CEDA and Lerroux's Radical Party.

The rising tide of fascism and Nazism across Europe, coupled with the Comintern's (Third International, ruled from Moscow) rejection of an immediate move into class struggle, significantly favored the creation of left-wing party alliances. The term Popular Front was coined by communists, notably... Continue reading "Spain's Popular Front: Formation and Political Impact 1936" »

The Dutch Republic's Independence

The United Provinces gained independence from Spain in 1648, establishing a republic comprised of seven provinces, each with its own Parliament. Representatives from each province convened at the States General to make collective decisions.

The Rise of Parliament in England

The Road to a Parliamentary System

In the early 17th century, Stuart kings sought absolute rule over Great Britain and Ireland, rejecting Parliament. This unpopular move, coupled with religious revolts in Scotland, ignited a revolution in 1640.

Civil War and the Fall of the Stuarts

Confrontations escalated into the Civil War in 1642, culminating in the downfall of the Stuart dynasty. Charles I's execution marked the end of the monarchy. Parliamentarian... Continue reading "17th Century Revolutions: Rise of Parliament and Scientific Method" »

The Cold War: Definition and Origins

The Cold War was the most important political issue of the early post-war period. It originated from long-lasting disagreements between the Soviet Union and the United States regarding their political and economic ideologies.

The Western Bloc defended a liberal democratic political regime within a capitalist economy, where corporations were the beneficiaries. The Soviet Union and its allies defended a form of state socialism. In reality, this system often resulted in a group of dictatorships within a state-based economic system where the hierarchy of the sole party, the Communist Party, became the new dominant class.

Key Events Triggering the Cold War

1. The Abandonment of US Isolationism: The Truman Doctrine.

Beer

Brewing Process

1. Malting
2. Mashing
3. Wort Separation
4. Wort Boiling
5. Fermentation

Beer Styles and Ingredients

• Older styles like ale and stout use top fermentation.
• The most common grain used for beer is barley.
• Hops are added during wort boiling for bitterness and aroma.
• The two main categories of wheat beer are Kristallweizen and Hefeweizen.
• Bitter is a type of beer usually hand-pumped in pubs.
• IPAs are known for their strong, hoppy character.
• Pale Lager is the most popular beer category.

Rum

Production and History

• The evaporation of spirit during aging is called Angel's Share.
• Rhum Industriel is made from molasses, a by-product of sugar refining.
• Brazil's national spirit is Cachaça, made from sugarcane juice.
• Rhum Agricole is made directly from sugarcane juice.

Humanism was a cultural movement that first began in the 14 century. It developed fully in the 15 and 16 centuries in the rich city-states of the northern parta of the italian peninsula.

humanists developed an anthropocentric wold view as an alternative to the God-centred world view of medieval christians. Humans and their intelligence became the main concerns of the humanists.

17th Century Transformations

Political Shifts: Decline of Spain & Rise of Absolutism

Serious international confrontations led to the decline of Spain's hegemony in Europe. Authoritarian monarchy was replaced by absolute monarchy.

Economic Changes: Mercantilism and Financial Capitalism

The rise of commerce encouraged financial capitalism, and most states imposed mercantilism as their economic policy.

Social Upheaval: The Rise of the Bourgeoisie

The traditional society of the three estates began to fracture due to the rise of the bourgeoisie.

Cultural & Scientific Revolution: Birth of Modern Science

The 17th century witnessed the birth of modern science. The application of experimental methods gave rise to a scientific revolution.

Political Systems