Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

EU policy involvement varies not just in its extent but also in its nature. The most important aspect of this varying nature is whether policies rely heavily on EU law or are more based on forms of intergovernmental cooperation.

It used to be the case that in those policy areas where the EU exercised significant responsibilities, well-established and effective policy instruments resting on EU law were almost invariably in place. It also used to be the case that where EU policy involvement was very limited, policy instruments tended mostly to be of the voluntary and persuasive kind.

However, over the years these two generalised statements, and especially the first, have become increasingly less accurate as the EU has made use of an increasing

Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that emerged in France in the 18th century. The most important ideas were:

• Confidence in reason
• Faith in human progress through science
• Criticism of the Old Regime

Old Regime

The Old Regime refers to the political, economic, and social system in Europe from the 15th century to the 18th century. It was characterized by:

• Political: Absolute monarchy
• Economic: An economy based on agriculture
• Social: A stratified society

Salons

Salons were meetings in private homes where intellectuals discussed politics, culture, and other topics. These gatherings contributed to the spread of Enlightenment ideas.

Encyclopaedia

The Encyclopaedia was a 28-volume work that summarized the knowledge of its time and included... Continue reading "The Enlightenment and its Impact: A Comprehensive Guide" »

Revolutionary Changes — Political, Economic, Social

Political level: The revolutions brought an end to absolutism and promoted a liberal political system founded on respect for citizens and the separation of powers.

Economic level: They marked the end of a primarily agrarian economy and the rise of a new urban and industrial economic model.

Social level: The old three-estate system based on birthright gave way to a new class-based society, with values centered on personal merit measured by wealth. The bourgeoisie became the dominant social group.

American Revolution: Causes, Conflict, Creation and Constitution

Causes of the American Revolution

Causes: Colonial discontent arose because the colonists lacked representation in the British Parliament.... Continue reading "Political, Economic and Social Effects of the American & French Revolutions" »

The Renaissance and Early Modern Europe (1450-1600)

1450: Constantinople Falls, Renaissance Dawns

• Ottoman Turks seize Constantinople.
• The Renaissance begins.

1517: Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation

• The Reformation starts with Martin Luther, emphasizing inner-directed faith.

1534: Calvinism's Rise in France

• Calvinism emerges in France, defining the relationship with God as a legal covenant.

1545-1563: The Council of Trent and Catholic Reform

• The Council of Trent addresses education and strengthens the Inquisition.

1555: Peace of Augsburg

• The Peace of Augsburg establishes a religious settlement for 60 years, involving Charles V and the Schmalkaldic League.

1562-1598: Huguenot Wars in France

• Conflicts between Huguenots and French Catholics, including

Historical Context and Major Shifts

Pre-Revolutionary Russia

• Autocratic Government: The Tsar possessed unlimited power and authority before the revolution.
• Semi-Feudal Economy: Land ownership was concentrated among a wealthy minority, while the peasant majority worked the land.
• Social Unrest: Three-quarters of the population were peasants living in poverty and paying taxes. Factory workers endured low wages and long working days.

Bloody Sunday

A protest demanding improvements in working conditions and political reforms was brutally suppressed.

The Soviet Union (USSR)

• Political power was held by the Soviets.
• The Communist Party was the sole political party.
• The state controlled important economic sectors.
• It was established as a federal state.

New Economic

The War of Independence & The Birth of a Nation (1775-1783)

Causes of the War of Independence

• The French & Indian War
• Colonial self-sufficiency
• Taxation without representation, including:
  • The Stamp Act (1765): Imposed taxes to raise colonial revenue.
  • The Townshend Acts: Imposed internal taxes.

Key Events Leading to War

• The Boston Massacre (1770)
• The Boston Tea Party (1773)
• The Intolerable Acts (1774): Closed Boston Harbor as an example of English attempts to isolate the colonies from each other.

Major Events During the War

• 1774 - The First Continental Congress: Representatives of the 13 colonies met in Philadelphia to improve relations with England. The effort failed.
• April 1775 - The Battles of Lexington and Concord: Fighting broke out in Massachusetts

The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)

Causes:

This war was caused by the conflict between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire. Gradually, it developed into a more general conflict for European political dominance.

The Main Problem of the War and the Different Participants:

Protestants Uprising in Bohemia:

Some Protestant nobles expelled the Catholic rulers and appointed a Protestant King in Bohemia. The Emperor, who was also King of Bohemia, fought against them.

Two Sides Were Formed:

1. The Emperor had the support of the German Catholics and the Kings of Spain and Portugal.
2. The Protestants allied with German princes, but they were defeated.

Swedish Participation:

1. After the Surrender of Breda, the German Catholics took the Protestants' possessions,

Causes of World War I

Colonial Rivalries: Provoked strained relations and clashes.

Alliances: Created a "balance of power" fueled by mutual fear.

Arms Race: European countries engaged in military buildup and war preparations.

Balkan Crisis: Conflicts between Austria and Russia threatened peace between the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente.

The Spark that Ignited the World

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie in Sarajevo, blamed on Serbia by Austria, provided Austria the opportunity to declare war on July 28, 1914.

Life in the Trenches

• Long, narrow ditches dug into the ground.
• Muddy conditions infested with rats and lice.
• Rampant diseases like fever, gangrene, requiring amputations.
• Constant threat of death.

Why Did the USA

Cold War Conflicts

Korean War (1950-1953)

North Korea invaded South Korea. South Korea was supported by the USA, Great Britain, and France. North Korea was supported by China and the USSR. The fighting ended on July 27, 1953, when the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed, resulting in a stalemate. It is the only conflict that persists nowadays.

Vietnam War (1955-1975)

The US feared Vietnam becoming communist, so they invaded. North Vietnam was supported by the USSR and China (communists). South Vietnam was supported by the USA and Australia (anti-communists). Vietnam became communist. This is the only war the USA lost.

Berlin Blockade (1948-1949)

The USSR blocked access to Berlin. West Berlin was capitalist (USA, France, UK), and East Berlin was... Continue reading "Cold War Conflicts: Korea, Vietnam, Berlin & More" »