Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The 17th century. Transformations and conflicts.

1.1.The transformations of the 17th century

• Political transformations: Authoritarian monarchy was substituted by absolute monarchy and the first parliamentary systems emerged.
• Economic transformations: The rise of commerce encouraged financial capitalism and the majority of states imposed mercantilism, a new economic doctrine based on the accumulation of wealth and precious metals.
• Social transformations: The society of the three estates began to rupture due to the rise of the bourgeoisie, who became wealthier through colonial trade.
• Cultural and artistic transformations: The 17th century witnessed the birth of modern science. In terms of art, the Baroque arose in Italy and spread to other European

Electronic Devices

Camcorder

Cordless Phone

Desktop Computer

Digital Camera

DVD Player

Games Console

Handheld Games Console

Hi-Fi

Laptop Computer

Netbook

Mobile Phone

Remote Control

Widescreen Television

Computing

Base Unit

Monitor

Printer

Router

Scanner

Speakers

Home Appliances

Microwave

Mobile Phone

Stereo

Video Recorder

Cooker

Fridge

Cassette Player

Freezer

Hairdryer

Washing Machine

Radio

TV

Technology

Fax Machine

CD-ROM

Disc

Printer

Smart Card

Screen

Vocabulary: Black History

African-American

Black American of African descent

Slaves

People who are owned and forced to work by someone else

Discrimination

Unfair treatment of a person or group on the basis of prejudice

Prejudice

An opinion or strong feeling formed without careful thought

Civil Rights

Human rights

Justice

The administration of... Continue reading "Electronic Devices and Black History Vocabulary" »

The 1905 Revolution

In January 1905, industrial workers in St. Petersburg peacefully marched on the Winter Palace, the Tsar's residence, to request improvements in working conditions and political reform. The protesters were brutally suppressed, and the protest became known as "Bloody Sunday."

The 1917 Revolutions

In 1917, a revolution took place in two phases: the liberal-bourgeois revolution in February and the socialist-proletarian revolution in October.

The February Revolution: The Provisional Government

In February 1917, there was a successful revolution of workers in Petrograd (previously called St. Petersburg), supported by soldiers and peasants. They protested the disasters of the war and the shortage of food and demanded Russia's withdrawal... Continue reading "Revolutions and Restorations: A Historical Overview" »

EU policy involvement varies not just in its extent but also in its nature. The most important aspect of this varying nature is whether policies rely heavily on EU law or are more based on forms of intergovernmental cooperation.

It used to be the case that in those policy areas where the EU exercised significant responsibilities, well-established and effective policy instruments resting on EU law were almost invariably in place. It also used to be the case that where EU policy involvement was very limited, policy instruments tended mostly to be of the voluntary and persuasive kind.

However, over the years these two generalised statements, and especially the first, have become increasingly less accurate as the EU has made use of an increasing

Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement that emerged in France in the 18th century. The most important ideas were:

• Confidence in reason
• Faith in human progress through science
• Criticism of the Old Regime

Old Regime

The Old Regime refers to the political, economic, and social system in Europe from the 15th century to the 18th century. It was characterized by:

• Political: Absolute monarchy
• Economic: An economy based on agriculture
• Social: A stratified society

Salons

Salons were meetings in private homes where intellectuals discussed politics, culture, and other topics. These gatherings contributed to the spread of Enlightenment ideas.

Encyclopaedia

The Encyclopaedia was a 28-volume work that summarized the knowledge of its time and included... Continue reading "The Enlightenment and its Impact: A Comprehensive Guide" »

The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)

Causes:

This war was caused by the conflict between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire. Gradually, it developed into a more general conflict for European political dominance.

The Main Problem of the War and the Different Participants:

Protestants Uprising in Bohemia:

Some Protestant nobles expelled the Catholic rulers and appointed a Protestant King in Bohemia. The Emperor, who was also King of Bohemia, fought against them.

Two Sides Were Formed:

1. The Emperor had the support of the German Catholics and the Kings of Spain and Portugal.
2. The Protestants allied with German princes, but they were defeated.

Swedish Participation:

1. After the Surrender of Breda, the German Catholics took the Protestants' possessions,

Causes of World War I

Colonial Rivalries: Provoked strained relations and clashes.

Alliances: Created a "balance of power" fueled by mutual fear.

Arms Race: European countries engaged in military buildup and war preparations.

Balkan Crisis: Conflicts between Austria and Russia threatened peace between the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente.

The Spark that Ignited the World

The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie in Sarajevo, blamed on Serbia by Austria, provided Austria the opportunity to declare war on July 28, 1914.

Life in the Trenches

• Long, narrow ditches dug into the ground.
• Muddy conditions infested with rats and lice.
• Rampant diseases like fever, gangrene, requiring amputations.
• Constant threat of death.

Why Did the USA

Cold War Conflicts

Korean War (1950-1953)

North Korea invaded South Korea. South Korea was supported by the USA, Great Britain, and France. North Korea was supported by China and the USSR. The fighting ended on July 27, 1953, when the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed, resulting in a stalemate. It is the only conflict that persists nowadays.

Vietnam War (1955-1975)

The US feared Vietnam becoming communist, so they invaded. North Vietnam was supported by the USSR and China (communists). South Vietnam was supported by the USA and Australia (anti-communists). Vietnam became communist. This is the only war the USA lost.

Berlin Blockade (1948-1949)

The USSR blocked access to Berlin. West Berlin was capitalist (USA, France, UK), and East Berlin was... Continue reading "Cold War Conflicts: Korea, Vietnam, Berlin & More" »

INDEPENDENCE, CONSTITUTION, BILL OF RIGHTS

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ROAD TO INDEPENDENCE

WHY INDEPENDENCE? Two main ideological roots that are opposed: