Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for History

The American Revolution (1775-1783)

2.1. Causes of the War

• Ideological factors:
  • Colonists were influenced by Enlightenment ideas about liberty and equality.
  • These ideas became the basis for the independence movement.
• Political factors:
  • British Parliament made decisions about taxes and other issues related to the colonies.
  • Great Britain refused to allow the colonies to be represented in Parliament.
• Economic and social factors:
  • Wealthy colonial bourgeoisie wanted freedom to trade without British interference.
  • They also wanted to occupy territories to the west.
  • The high cost of the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) led to increased taxes on products like tea, sugar, and lead.
  • Colonies refused to pay these taxes, leading to protests like the Boston Tea Party.

2.

What Was Chartism?

Chartism was the second stage of the labor movement. It consisted of participation in politics to improve workers' lives. Workers wrote a document called the People's Charter, which included some vindications such as:

• Male universal suffrage
• Yearly elections
• Secret ballots
• Wages for worker politicians

This movement happened between 1838 and 1848 but it failed as their vindications were not accepted and the protests became too radical. However, the revolutions of 1848 did not spread to the UK, as the government agreed to improve the working conditions of women and children.

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels were the first and main thinkers of socialism.

Class Struggle

Class struggle is the fight between a... Continue reading "A History of Labor Movements and Imperialism" »

Long-Term Causes of World War II

1. The Treaty of Versailles: In Germany, people resented the Treaty of Versailles, which Hitler had promised to destroy. He broke its conditions, firstly by rebuilding Germany's armed forces. Then, in 1936, he reoccupied the Rhineland, an important industrial region that had been made a demilitarized zone by the treaty.

2. The Failure of the League of Nations: The League of Nations was created to keep the peace, but it was unable to prevent the Second World War. In general, the organization failed because it could not enforce treaties or impose its decisions.

3. Expansionism: Authoritarian regimes in Germany, Italy, and Japan felt that they needed to expand the territory under their control in order to acquire... Continue reading "World War II: Origins, Turning Points, and Conclusion" »

THE 1917 REVOLUTIONS

In 1917 there was a revolution which took place in two phases: the liberal-bourgeois revolution in February and the socialist-proletariat revolution in October.

The February Revolution: Provisional Government

In February 1917, there was a successful revolution of workers in Petrograd, supported by soldiers and peasants. Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. A provisional government was formed, made up of liberals and Menshevik socialists led by the socialist Alexander Kerensky. The new government proclaimed Russia a republic and began to set up a democratic regime. They legalized political parties and called elections with universal male suffrage, to establish a Constituent Assembly that would write a constitution. The... Continue reading "The 1917 Revolutions: February & October" »

19th Century Spanish Politics

The Reign of Fernando VII (1814-1833)

Absolutist Phase (1814-1820)

Fernando VII dismissed the Cortes, abolished the 1812 Constitution, and re-established absolute monarchy.

Liberal Phase (1820-1823)

The Riego and Quiroga military coup forced the king to reinstate the 1812 Constitution and suppressed freedoms.

Ominous Decade (1823-1833)

Aided by the French army (the "100,000 Sons of Saint Louis"), Fernando VII defeated the liberals and reinstated absolutism.

The Reign of Isabel II (1833-1868)

A liberal constitutional monarchy was established with shared sovereignty, support from liberal political parties, constitutions, and military participation.

The Regency Period

Regencies of María Cristina Bourbon and General Espartero.... Continue reading "19th Century Spanish Politics: From Absolutism to Democracy" »

Shared Responsibility for World War I

It is true that not all the blame for the outbreak of the First World War should fall solely on Germany. Other countries also took actions that, in retrospect, were not successful or contributed to rising tensions.

Precursors to Conflict

The Moroccan Crises

For example, in the Moroccan Crises, Germany was involved but arguably found itself in a difficult position, facing opposition from multiple other powers.

The Italo-Turkish War

In the Italo-Turkish War (1911-1912), another event preceding the First World War, Germany had no direct involvement in the fighting. Italy took advantage of the situation to attack the Ottoman Empire while European powers had disagreements with Turkey over other issues.

The Balkan Wars

Germany... Continue reading "Causes of World War I: Beyond Germany" »

What Was World War II?

World War II, a global armed conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, was a total war in two distinct aspects. Firstly, civilian populations became primary targets and the war's most tragic victims. Secondly, the conflict engulfed all continents, marking it as one of the most brutal and inhumane wars in history.

Driven by Nazi expansionism, World War II represented an ideological struggle. It pitted democracy and socialism against fascism, even sparking civil conflicts within the Axis powers—Germany, Italy, and Japan. The Allied forces—including Britain, France, the USA, and the Soviet Union—fought for liberal democratic principles.

As the largest armed conflict in human history, World War II resulted in unprecedented destruction,... Continue reading "World War II: Causes, Impact, and Legacy" »

The Age of Revolution

• 1776-1871
• The American Revolution
• Thirteen British colonies in Eastern North America
• Economy based on agriculture and trade
• Black slaves worked in agriculture
• Britain had the monopoly of trade
• Political tensions: Settlers payed taxes but did not have political representation. Rejection to buy British products. Boston Tea Party: attack against a ship with tea [ outbreak of the Revolutionary War
• The conflict brought political changes: Jefferson wrote the Virginia declaration of Rights. 1776 Declaration of Independence
• The American Revolutionary War: Colonies were supported by France and Spain. Washington victories Britain recognised independence. Treaty of Versailles 1783. 1787 United States Constitution. 1789 Washington first American

Will Rogers: The American entertainer who traveled the Far East in 1931 had a unique perspective. He particularly liked Shanghai.

Jan Myrdal: In 1982, Myrdal revisited the Chinese village he reported on in 1962. His observations in Return to a Chinese Village expressed disappointment at the changes and continued support for Mao's program, including the Cultural Revolution.

Fulbright Hearings: U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee hearings on Vietnam conducted between 1966 and 1971.

Simon Leys: Argued that the Cultural Revolution was not cultural or revolutionary, but an irrational, cruel power struggle replicating old despotism.

Little Red Book: A collection of statements from speeches and writings by Mao Zedong, published from 1964 to about... Continue reading "Key Figures and Events Shaping China-US Relations" »

Latin American Social Hierarchy

1. Peninsulares: People born in Spain. They were at the top of the social hierarchy.

The Revolutions in the Americas

Bonds That Create