Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Exploring Human Habitats

Rural Habitats

A significant portion of the world's population (47%, or 3.4 billion people) resides in rural areas, maintaining traditional customs and playing a crucial role in food production and environmental preservation.

Traditional Houses and Their Classification

Rural dwellings often utilize natural materials and can be categorized based on shape, material, and geographical location:

• Mud Houses (Adobe): Common in regions with irrigated agriculture and livestock, such as Valencia, Aragon, the southern Sahara, and savannahs.
• Wooden Houses: Prevalent in forest areas, taiga, and wetter swamp regions like the Amazon River basin, Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and mountainous areas of Spain.
• Houses Made of Fur and Fabric: Used

economic system=way that goods and services are produced and distributed.

Urban Hierarchies

World Cities

• World metropolises: New York and Tokyo.
• Megacities: Delhi.
• Megalopolises.
• Global cities: These exert global influence regarding certain activities, such as technology in Seattle or trade in Dubai.

Continental and Regional Cities

• Continental cities: They usually govern a large number of areas and perform different activities (e.g., London, Madrid, San Francisco).
• Regional cities: They govern a large number of areas, but fewer than the continental cities (e.g., Milan, Barcelona).

Medium-Sized Cities

These cities are less polluted, foster better relationships, and offer the best quality of life. Definition: They represent a balanced urban model.

World Cities in the 21st Century

Globalization has changed all cities.

Cities in

The Iberian Peninsula: Kingdoms and Conquests

The Rise of Asturias and León

1. Who moved the capital to León, and renamed Asturias as the Kingdom of León?

○ Ordoño II

2. When was Asturias renamed as León?

○ In the 10th century

3. Who made Castile an independent county and when?

○ Fernán González in the 10th century

4. Who unified Castile with León and when?

○ Ferdinand I unified them in 1038

5. From which kingdom did Aragon become independent and when?

○ From Navarre in the 11th century

6. What were the first two capitals of the Kingdom of Asturias?

○ Cangas de Onís and Oviedo

7. What was the Hispanic March?

○ A zone established by Charlemagne in 795 as a defensive barrier between the Al-Andalus and the Carolingian Empire.

8. Who conquered... Continue reading "A History of Spain: From the Crown of Aragon to the Age of Exploration" »

Global Population Dynamics and Growth

World population grew very slowly before the 19th century. Birth rates were high, but death rates were also high. From the early 19th century, the death rate in developed countries fell due to improved medicine and better nutrition following improvements in agriculture, causing the world population to increase.

In the 20th century, there was rapid population growth, often referred to as the Population Explosion.

Regions with Low Population Growth

These regions typically have low population growth, often around 0.2%. This trend is linked to several factors:

• Low birth rate.
• More working women.
• Contraception is widely available.
• Families delay having children.
• It is expensive to raise a family.
• Social values are changing.

The Rise of Authoritarian Monarchies in Europe

In the 15th century, European monarchs reinforced their power by reducing the influence of the Church, nobility, municipalities, and parliaments. This era was marked by various civil wars. To consolidate their authority, monarchs implemented several key changes:

• Created a bureaucracy and a professional, centralized administration.
• Built a standing army with troops paid for and directed by the monarch.
• Increased taxes to finance their growing activities.
• Established a diplomatic system to maintain relations with other countries.

The Formation of Great Kingdoms

During this period, Europe was divided into small states, but they began to unite through marriage alliances and conquest. Four great kingdoms emerged... Continue reading "The Rise of Authoritarian Monarchies and Spanish Unification" »

Key Figures of the Age of Exploration

Hernán Cortés: Spanish explorer who landed on the coast of Mexico in 1519. In 1521, he and his Indian allies captured and demolished Tenochtitlan.

Malinche: A young Indian woman who served as Cortés's translator and adviser. The Spanish called her Doña Malinche.

Moctezuma: Aztec emperor who drove the Spanish from Tenochtitlan. He was killed in the fighting.

Francisco Pizarro: Spanish explorer who captured and killed Atahualpa.

Atahualpa: Incan ruler who won the throne from his brother in a bloody civil war.

Colonial Administration and Society

Council of the Indies: Established to pass laws and maintain strict control over the colonies.

Encomienda: The right to demand labor or tribute from Native Americans in... Continue reading "Key Figures and Concepts of the Age of Exploration and Enlightenment" »

The Birth of the Modern World

Tense International Relations

The late 19th and early 20th centuries were marked by tense international relations. Industrialized countries focused on large-scale production, fueled by colonization and a growing consumer society. This led to inequalities and economic crises, causing a decline in the influence of realism in international politics.

Political Tensions in Europe

While armed conflicts were avoided within Europe, there was a significant increase in the production of arms and military equipment. Germany's foreign policy under Bismarck focused on alliances with Austria, Russia, and Italy, leading to the annexation of Alsace and Lorraine. Wilhelm II's dismissal of Bismarck and subsequent expansionist policies... Continue reading "The Second Industrial Revolution and the Rise of Imperialism" »

How Colonial Empires Divided the World

A. The British Empire

In the late 19th century, Great Britain possessed the largest colonial empire, controlling vital maritime trade routes with strategic bases in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, as well as the Mediterranean.

• Africa: The British established a vast empire stretching from Cairo in the north to Cape Town in the south.
• India: As the primary British colony, India served as a massive market for British goods and a critical supplier of raw materials.
• Geopolitical Rivalries: To secure the region around India, Great Britain competed with France for control of Burma (1886) and with Russia for influence in Afghanistan and Tibet.

B. The French Empire

France maintained the second-largest colonial... Continue reading "Colonial Empires: How Global Powers Divided the World" »

The Protestant Reformation: Origins and Division

The Reformation was a religious movement which began in the first half of the 16th century. It instigated the division of the Christian Church and the founding of Protestant churches.

Causes of the Reformation

The primary causes of the Reformation were:

• The low clergy's lack of training.
• The bad example set by the high clergy.
• The Church's immense wealth.
• The buying and selling of ecclesiastical positions (simony).
• The sale of indulgences.

Key Figures of the Movement

• Martin Luther: The German priest was scandalized by the amount of corruption in the Church. He published the famous “95 Theses” in 1517, challenging papal authority.
• Ulrich Zwingli: A Swiss pastor who founded the Reformed Church in the