Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Treaty of Tordesillas

In 1493, the Pope divided all newly discovered lands outside Europe between Spain and Portugal along a line in the Atlantic Ocean. However, the Spanish and Portuguese disagreed about the position of the line. In 1494, they met at Tordesillas, where they agreed on the line of longitude 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. This agreement was called the Treaty of Tordesillas. However, most other European countries ignored the treaty.

Around the World

Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese sailor who asked King Manuel I of Portugal to finance a westward voyage to Asia. When the King refused, Magellan turned to the Spanish Monarchs, who agreed to finance the expedition. In 1519, Magellan set sail. He was killed in a battle... Continue reading "Age of Exploration: From Treaty of Tordesillas to the Impact of New Discoveries" »

1. The Truce of Gods

The Truce of Gods was a period of peace in Europe that began after the Norman invasion ended.

2. Agriculture in the 11th Century

Agriculture developed significantly in the 11th century with new cultivation methods, farming tools, and the use of windmills and watermills.

3. Effects of Increased Production

The increase in agricultural production led to a need for more arable land, which resulted in demographic expansion.

4. Trade and the Growth of Cities

Trade played a crucial role in the growth of cities, as people flocked to urban centers for work and access to goods.

5. Christ's Residence

Christ lived in Jerusalem.

6. The Holy Land

The Holy Land refers to the area where Christ lived.

7. Pilgrims

Pilgrims are individuals who undertake... Continue reading "Medieval Europe: A Comprehensive Guide to the Middle Ages" »

English Grammar: Modals and Equatives

Section B: Expressing Obligation with Modals

Use must or have to / has to to express an obligation or strong advice.

• Their ship sails at 10:00 am. It is 9:30 am. They have to rush to the pier.
• All passengers must have their luggage checked by security.
• Lonnie has to stop at all intersections. It is the law.
• Ferry, you must listen to Jose Mujica’s dissertation. It is a masterpiece.
• To enter legally into the country, you must get a visa first.

Section C: Strong Advice with Had Better

Express strong advice using had better or had better not in the following sentences.

• We had better remember to set the alarm. We have to arrive 30 minutes earlier.
• The handyman had better not forget to close the windows before the cleaning

Mahatma Gandhi: Architect of Indian Independence

Mahatma Gandhi was the preeminent leader of the Indian independence movement in British-ruled India. He also inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. The honorific Mahatma was bestowed upon him in 1914 in South Africa.

Born on October 2, 1869, in Porbandar, Gandhi was raised in a Hindu merchant caste family. He trained in Law at the Inner Temple in London. Gandhi first employed non-violent civil disobedience as a lawyer in South Africa. When he returned to India in 1915, he organized peasants, farmers, and labourers against discrimination. He was elected to the Indian National Congress in 1921, from where he fought British domination. He was imprisoned for many years and... Continue reading "Mahatma Gandhi & Andy Warhol: Legacies of Influence" »

The Dawn of Modernity: Industrial and Social Revolutions

Transformative Eras: Industrialization and French Revolution

• In Great Britain, significant economic and technological advances led to the development of a more efficient system of industrial production.
• The process of industrialization soon spread throughout Europe.
• The combination of industrialization and the consequences of the French Revolution resulted in the end of the traditional estates system.
• Art and architecture during this period reflected the profound economic and social changes taking place.

Origins of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain

Key Factors Driving Industrialization from the 1760s

• Population Growth: During the 18^th century, improved living conditions in Europe, due

Theme 7: The Catholic Monarchs and the Great Expeditions

1. The Reign of the Catholic Monarchs

At the end of the 15th century, the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, established an authoritarian monarchy on the Iberian Peninsula. The same process of centralization also occurred in France and England.

1.1 Domestic Reforms

The Catholic Monarchs carried out a series of domestic reforms to centralize power:

• To weaken the power of the nobility:
  • A permanent army was formed.
  • Permission was obtained from the Pope to place military orders under the monarchs' control.
  • The royal treasury was given greater powers to control and administer tax collection.
  • Councils of experts were appointed to advise the monarchs about:
    • Territories:

Unit 3: Key Industrial Concepts

• Heavy Industry: Industry that transforms raw materials into semi-finished products used by other industries.
• Light Industry: Industry that manufactures products for consumers, utilizing raw materials or semi-finished products.
• Industrial Area: A geographical location characterized by continuous industrial development and activity.
• European Blue Banana: Also known as the European Backbone or the Bluemerang, this urban corridor of industry stretches from North West England to Northern Italy. Cities in this area are characterized by a high concentration of capital, population, and industry.
• Refinery: A production facility where raw materials are converted into valuable products through chemical processes.

Unit 4: Economic

Source Reference: 27. Katherine Philips, On the Fair Weather just at the Coronation... (1661)

Katherine Philips's Occasional Poem (1661)

This text analyzes Katherine Philips’s poem, “On the Fair Weather just at the Coronation, it having rained immediately before and after.” Composed in 1661, this work is a prime example of occasional poetry—a genre written to commemorate a specific event. It celebrates the Coronation of Charles II, focusing specifically on the Parade of the King on his way to the Royal Palace to be crowned.

Historical Context: The English Restoration

Charles II is the central figure of the Restoration in England, a period spanning 1660 to 1685, during which the monarchy was recovered. England had previously been a Republic... Continue reading "Katherine Philips: Analyzing the Coronation Poem of Charles II (1661)" »

Origins of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was a period of profound economic and social changes, caused by the widespread use of machinery in production. It occurred in two stages: the first began around 1760, and the second in 1870.

Demographic Growth and Public Health

The English population grew slowly until the 18th century as both the birth rate and the death rate were high. In the late 18th century, however, there was high and sustained population growth. This was because the death rate decreased, while the birth rate continued to be high. The death rate decreased for several reasons:

• Nutrition: This improved, and potatoes became a basic food.
• Personal and public hygiene.
• Public health: Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine

Norman Rule and Saxon Degradation

The Irony of Daily Life in Norman England

The whole scene sets up a degradation of the daily life of a Saxon in Norman England, full of ironic humor.

Property, Forests, and the Ranger's Authority

On line 22, Gurth mentions the figure of the Ranger of the Forest. For the Normans, land property was much more important than for the Saxons. When they arrived in England, they reinforced the idea of property by identifying people in relation to their land, which can be appreciated in the names of the nobility (e.g., Simon of Montfort, etc.).

They reinforced private property, and forests were no longer common ground, as they used to be during the Saxon period, but were placed under the administration of Royalty and nobility.... Continue reading "Class Conflict and Linguistic Division in Norman England" »