Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Key Demographic Formulas

• Number of Births: (Number of Inhabitants × Birth Rate) ÷ 1000
• Number of Deaths: (Number of Inhabitants × Death Rate) ÷ 1000
• Birth Rate: (Number of Births × 1000) ÷ Number of Inhabitants
• Death Rate: (Number of Deaths × 1000) ÷ Number of Inhabitants
• Natural Increase: ((Number of Births - Number of Deaths) × 100) ÷ Number of Inhabitants
• Population Density: Number of Inhabitants ÷ Surface Area

World Population Dynamics

Demographic transition refers to the shift from high birth and death rates to lower birth and death rates as a country or region develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system.

Factors Influencing Birth Rates

• High infant mortality rates
• Religious beliefs and lack of family planning options
• Improved

Demographic, Economic, and Political Crisis

Crisis did not affect all the kingdoms equally.

• Large demographic decline in Navarra and Catalonia.
• Social and Political Sphere: Persecuting religious minorities, social conflicts, seigneurial oppression, peasant and urban movements, and crisis in institutions.

State Formation Process

Interaction between institutions and organizations characterized the process.

Government Institutions: The Early Modern State Formation Process

From Feudalism to Centralization

• Administration of Justice: Carried out in three areas:
  • Corregidores
  • Chancillería
  • Royal Council
• Taxation: Alcabala (Hacienda).
• Council of Military Orders.
• The Cortes: For approving resources.
• The Brotherhood: To maintain public order.
• The Inquisition.

The Church'

Cities vs. Villages

A city is a place with a population exceeding 10,000 inhabitants. Cities are characterized by high-rise buildings, factories, businesses, and historical districts. In contrast, villages are smaller settlements with limited businesses, few inhabitants, fewer services, and a predominantly agricultural economy.

Pre-Industrial Cities

In the pre-industrial era, less than 10% of the population resided in cities, which typically housed between 5,000 to 10,000 people. These cities served various functions:

• Military
• Administrative
• Economic
• Religious

The Classic City (9th-8th Centuries BC)

During this period, Phoenicians and Greeks established trading posts along the coasts of Hispania. The Romanization of these areas marked the beginning... Continue reading "From Ancient Towns to Modern Metropolises: Understanding Urban Development" »

Ancient Mesopotamia and the First Civilizations

Mesopotamia is a region in which two important civilizations lived: the Persians and the Babylonians. The Babylonians were a very important civilization because they started with writing. Mesopotamia means (in Greek) "land between two rivers"; these rivers are the Tigris and Euphrates.

Major River Civilizations

• Mesopotamian: Located between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates.
• Egyptian: Located on the banks of the Nile valley.
• Indian: Located along the rivers Indus and Ganges.
• Chinese: Located along the river Huang He.

Political and Social Evolution

Political Changes

Political power emerged from the need to organize collective work.

Economic, Social, and Cultural Changes

Society became more complex due to the... Continue reading "Ancient Mesopotamia: The Birth of Civilization" »

Southern Europe

Geographic Features

Mountains and Peninsulas

• Pyrenees Mountains: Form a natural border between Spain and France.
• Undersea Mountains: Contribute to the formation of many islands in Southern Europe.
• Alps: Europe's highest mountain range.
• Apennines: Run along the Italian Peninsula.
• Balkan Peninsula: Home to Greece.
• Iberian Peninsula: Location of Spain and Portugal.

Water Bodies and Climate

• Mediterranean Sea: Influences the climate and culture of Southern European countries.
• Mediterranean Climate: Characterized by warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters, ideal for growing crops.
• Tagus River: The longest river in Southern Europe.
• Po River: Flows through a fertile and densely populated area in Italy.

Culture and History

Ancient Greece

• Democracy:

Trade Diversion and Creation

Trade diversion: A shift in the pattern of trade from low-cost world producers to higher-cost CU or FTA members.

-e: trade diversion

Trade creation: An expansion in world trade that results from the formation of a preferential trade arrangement.

B+d: trade creation

Rules of Origin in Regional Economic Integration

Define rules of origin and which form of regional economic integration requires them.

Rules of origin are required in Free Trade Areas to avoid trade deflection and prevent export companies from outside the FTA from benefiting unfairly. These rules are the criteria established to determine the national source of a product. They are important because duties and restrictions often depend upon the source of imports.... Continue reading "Understanding Trade Agreements: Creation, Diversion, and Types" »

Apartheid was a political and social system in South Africa while it was under white minority rule.This was in use in the 20th century, from 1948 to 1994.^[1] Racial segregation had been used for centuries but the new policy started in 1948 was stricter and more systematic.

In the system, the people of South Africa were divided by their race and the races were forced to live apart from each other. There were laws that kept up the racial separation. The system of apartheid in South Africa was banned in 1994. The last president under apartheid was Frederik Willem de Klerk.^[2] After this, Nelson Mandela became the first black president.^[3][4] Both were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts.^[5] Today, the term apartheid is... Continue reading "Law 19983 on" »

UK Deer Species

Six deer species are found in the UK.

Sporadic Species

Of these, three species are found sporadically in Central England:

Red Deer

Red Deer are the largest of the indigenous species, found in the Highlands, Southwest Scotland, and Southwest England.

Sika Deer

Sika Deer originated in the Far East and were brought to Ireland in 1860. They are mostly found in Scotland, Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Dorset.

Chinese Water Deer

Chinese Water Deer are a wetland species found mainly in the Fens of East Anglia.

Common Species

The other three species are more commonly found across the UK:

Fallow Deer

Fallow Deer were indigenous, believed to have been driven to the Mediterranean by glaciers in the Ice Age and reintroduced during the Norman Conquest.

• Herding

M12/3/GEOGR/BP1/ENG/TZ0/XX/

1. Analysis of Development Trends

(a) Describe the relationship shown on the graph

There is a positive relationship: life expectancy at birth increases as GDP per capita increases [1 mark], but it is non-linear and levels off [1 mark]. Award [1 mark] for identification of an anomaly and [1 mark] for quantification.

(b) Suggest two possible reasons for the relationship

Award [1 mark] for identifying a valid reason and [1 mark] for further development or exemplification:

• Higher GDP per capita implies a higher standard of living, which impacts diet, hygiene, sanitation, water supply, and access to health care, thereby increasing longevity [1+1 marks].
• Reasons for anomalies or the levelling off effect may also be developed.

North American Geography and Culture

• Within the Alaska Range, we find Mount McKinley, the highest peak in the United States and Canada at about 20,000 feet.
• The New England culture core began as a patchwork of small, subsistence-oriented farms surrounding small villages.
• Georgia enjoys a humid subtropical climate, while Wisconsin enjoys a humid continental climate.
• The northernmost Great Lake is Lake Superior.
• The Appalachian Plateau is found on the western side of the Appalachian Highlands system.
• Northern Quebec enjoys a subarctic climate.
• In 1940, manufacturing accounted for about 33.9 percent of U.S. employment.

Latin American Landscapes and Civilizations

• The driest desert on Earth is the Atacama.
• The lowest in elevation of Latin America's altitudinal