Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Local Government: Key Concepts and Structures

Statutory Law

Laws passed by legislatures.

Common Law

Legal traditions developed through court cases going back to England.

Judicial Federalism

State courts' authority to interpret their own states' constitutional guarantees to expand upon those in the U.S. Constitution.

Judicial Activism

The making of new laws through judicial interpretation of laws and constitutions.

Judicial Restraint

Self-imposed limits on courts to defer to legislative intent or to previous court decisions.

Service Function

Supplying goods and services not sufficiently supplied by private entities; a purpose of local governments.

Political Function

Managing conflict over public policy; a purpose of local governments.

General Purpose Government

A... Continue reading "Understanding Local Government: Key Concepts and Structures" »

Global Economy

International business is transforming the world as never before. The decades following the establishment of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1947 witnessed unprecedented growth in international trade and investment. Companies focused more and more on the mass production of products and services to meet insatiable world demand. Since the 1980s, emerging markets provided new impetus to worldwide economic interconnectedness. These fast-growth developing economies—some two dozen countries including Brazil, India, China, and Poland—are experiencing substantial market liberalization, privatization, and industrialization, which are fueling global economic transformation. These emerging markets, located on every... Continue reading "The Impact of International Business on the Global Economy" »

HIGH-DEVELOPMENT COUNTRIES

• High GDP per inhabitant
• Extensive middle class
• Democratic political systems
• Major carbon footprint

LOW-DEVELOPMENT COUNTRIES

• Low GDP per inhabitant
• Social differences
• Authoritarian political systems and frequently encountered
• Minor carbon footprint

EMERGING COUNTRIES

• Modest GDP per inhabitant
• Their middle class has grown
• Recently established democratic systems
• Increasing carbon footprint

CAUSES OF DEVELOPMENT INEQUALITIES. DOMESTIC CAUSES

• Climate and weather
• Drought and famine
• Natural hazards
• Landscape
• High population growth
• Endemic disease
• Trade
• Natural resources
• Political corruption
• Industrial development
• Civil war

Interspecific Relationships in Communities

Interspecific relationships within communities include:

• Predation: One organism kills and feeds on another.
• Competition: Organisms compete for the same resources (can be interspecific or intraspecific).
• Parasitism: One organism benefits at the expense of another.
• Social Parasitism: One species uses another for its own purposes (e.g., mosquito eggs).
• Commensalism: One organism benefits from another's actions without affecting it (e.g., beetles or vultures benefiting from excrement).
• Mutualism: Two organisms live in harmony (e.g., clownfish and anemones).
• Inquilinism: One organism finds protection from another (e.g., coral).
• Symbiosis: Two species live together to survive (e.g., bees and flowers).

Trophic Levels

IMPERIALISM

The Causes of Imperialism

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, increased production forced Great Britain and Germany to seek new markets outside Europe. This economic pressure, along with other factors, fueled the Age of Imperialism.

• Prestige and Power: European countries viewed colonies as symbols of international prestige and sought to control strategic locations for security and mobility in case of conflict.
• Economic Expansion: Population growth and industrialization in Europe led to unemployment, prompting emigration to colonies for work. Colonies also provided sources of raw materials and markets for manufactured goods.
• Scientific Exploration: Scientific advancements spurred geographic expeditions to uncharted territories

Coastal Management Strategies

Building a Sea Wall

A sea wall is a wall built on the edge of the coastline to protect against erosion and flooding. For example, waves in Porthleven are managed using a sea wall.

Advantages

• Protects the base of cliffs, land, and buildings against erosion.
• Can prevent coastal flooding in some areas.

Disadvantages

• Expensive to build.
• Curved sea walls reflect wave energy back to the sea, maintaining wave power and potentially increasing erosion over time.
• High maintenance costs.

Building Groynes

Groynes are wooden barriers built at right angles to the beach, such as the Hopton Sea Wall in Norfolk.

Advantages

• Prevent the movement of beach material along the coast by longshore drift.
• Allow the buildup of a beach, which acts as a

Between 1750 and 1850 Britain became an Industrialized Country

People's lives changed dramatically during this period of history. With the Industrial Revolution, agrarian activities were replaced by factories. This massive revolution had an impact on living conditions, travel, types of work, and social and political changes.

The First Cotton Factory and the Transformation of Working Conditions

The mills, which were in the factories, were revolutionary in the way they changed the working conditions and lifestyle of the population. Because these machines were automatic, the work in the mills was done mainly by unskilled laborers. Two-thirds of the workforce was made up of women and children. Some of these children were pauper apprentices, which... Continue reading "The Impact of the Industrial Revolution on British Society" »

Germany: Most regions have a cool continental climate, with the best vineyards located on the slopes in the river valleys. Sweet winemaking is very important in Germany. There are 13 regions for quality wine in Germany, with Mosel being the most important. Mosel comprises the valley of the Mosel River. The Riesling variety dominates production, and it is a region with important history, geography, and geology. The grape variety Riesling is the most planted grape in Germany. It has high levels of acidity and normally produces wines with low alcohol and high acidity, ranging from dry to sweet. When young, the aroma is a little plain, but it becomes more intense and complex with age.

We also have Eiswein (ice wine): made from grapes that have been... Continue reading "German, Italian, Portuguese, and Hungarian Wines: A Tasting Journey" »

The Flora of the Desert Climate

The flora of the desert climate is scarce, low, and dispersed. Extensive uncovered surfaces are occupied by sand, stones, or rocks. The steppes consist of low grasses and isolated shrubs in deserts, including thorny plants like cacti and scrub. Only in the oasis, the presence of water allows abundant vegetation, including palm trees and shrubs.

The Steppe Biome

The steppe is a biome consisting of herbaceous vegetation typical of extreme climates and scarce rainfall. It is also associated with cold deserts, distinguishing it from torrid deserts.

Cacti: Adaptations to Extreme Heat

Cacti are members of the plant family Cactaceae. When living in areas of extreme heat, cacti exchange gases during the night, utilizing a... Continue reading "Flora of the Desert: Adaptations and Characteristics" »