Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Ancient Iberia

Celts

Celtic peoples, an Indo-European group, migrated to the Iberian Peninsula between the 10th and 5th centuries BC. Organized into clans and tribes, their hierarchical society placed warriors at the top. These cattle farmers resided in fortified hilltop villages known as castros, which were largely self-sufficient due to limited trade. Their dwellings were typically rounded, and they practiced polytheism and cremation in designated necropolis.

Celtiberians

Representing a more developed Celtic group due to Iberian influence, the Celtiberians inhabited larger settlements called oppida and possessed a written language.

Iberians

Indigenous to the Iberian Peninsula, Iberians were influenced by colonizers such as the Phoenicians and... Continue reading "Ancient Iberia: Celts, Iberians, and Roman Conquest" »

The Crown of Castile (1230–1492)

The Crown of Castile began in 1230 when Fernando III inherited the Kingdom of Castile and the Kingdom of León, uniting them under a single crown.

Institutional Structure of Castile

The territories were governed by shared institutions and laws. The monarch held significant power, able to declare war, make laws, and act as a judge. Key institutions included:

• Parliament (Cortes): Composed of noblemen, clergy, and representatives from cities.
• Royal Council: Advised the King on governance and policy.
• High Court (Audiencia): Held supreme judicial authority.

Municipal Government: The Council was the main governing body, while the Chief Magistrate represented the King in the cities.

Castilian Economy and the Mesta

Following... Continue reading "The Iberian Kingdoms: Castile and Aragon, 1230–1492" »

Problems Affecting Water Sources and the Atmosphere

Alterations to Water Sources

Overexploitation of Water Resources

Overexploitation is the excessive consumption of freshwater as a result of agrarian, urban, and industrial usage. River discharge levels fall, as do lake and aquifer water levels. This problem primarily affects semi-arid environments.

Water Pollution

Pollution affects both freshwater and saltwater sources. It is caused by chemical products used in agriculture, industrial and urban waste, and accidents involving oil tankers, which give rise to oil slicks. The quality of water supplies is reduced, and aquatic plants and animals disappear.

Affected water sources include sections of rivers and coasts near industrial and urban areas, enclosed... Continue reading "Water and Air Degradation: Global Environmental Impacts" »

The Trans-Saharan Trade Network

The Trans-Saharan trade route was a vital commercial artery, connecting the Mediterranean coast of North Africa with West African nations from the 8th to the late 16th century. Following the 7th century, Arab expansion into North Africa led to their control over Saharan trade routes. The period from the 8th to the 11th centuries marked the development of this trade, with its zenith occurring between the 11th and 16th centuries. Subsequently, the trade experienced a decline. The Sahara Desert's central location made it the primary conduit for this commerce, which was primarily conducted by caravans of camels.

Economic Pillars: Gold, Slaves, and Global Links

A defining economic characteristic of Sub-Saharan Africa... Continue reading "Ancient African Trade Routes: Gold, Islam, and Saharan Commerce" »

Deforestation and Biodiversity Decline

Deforestation: Causes and Consequences

Deforestation is the removal of plant cover. It is caused by:

• The mass burning or felling of trees to transform land for agricultural, livestock farming, or residential uses.
• Supplying timber to industries.
• The building of infrastructure.
• The collecting of firewood.

As a result of deforestation:

• Levels of carbon dioxide increase.
• Humidity levels, along with water reserves, are diminished.
• Soil erosion increases due to the lack of protection and binding provided by vegetation.
• Animal and plant species become extinct due to the disappearance of natural habitats.

Damage to Woodlands and Jungles

Developed countries: Damage is most widespread in temperate and frigid woodland regions,... Continue reading "Deforestation's Impact on Biodiversity and Ecosystems" »

New York City: Top Attractions

Here are some of the most iconic and must-see attractions in New York City:

1. Statue of Liberty

   Located on Liberty Island, at the entrance to New York Harbor, the Statue of Liberty is an iconic symbol of freedom and democracy. It was a gift from France to the United States and has been an important landmark since its inauguration in 1886.

2. Empire State Building

   This iconic New York skyscraper is located on Fifth Avenue and is famous for its art deco architecture. With its 102 floors, the Empire State Building offers impressive panoramic views of the city from its observation deck on the 86th floor.

3. Chinatown

   It is a vibrant and bustling neighborhood in lower Manhattan, known for its Chinese community and distinctive culture.

Cultural Concepts

Popular Culture and Taboos

Soccer: Originating in the UK in 1863, soccer became a global phenomenon with standardized rules.

Taboos: Examples include pork (Islam), fish without scales or cloven-hoofed animals (Judaism), and cows (Hinduism).

Cultural Diversity: Often promoted by geographic isolation.

Internet Diffusion: Spread globally, primarily between 1995 and 2017.

Uniform Landscape: Exemplified by activities like golf, which create similar environments worldwide.

Cultural Landscape: The interaction between culture and the environment, resulting in modifications to the landscape.

Negative Effects of Popular Culture: Can threaten environmental quality.

Language

Lingua Franca: An international language used for communication (e.g.,... Continue reading "Cultural Concepts: Language, Religion, and Globalization" »

The Ancient Maya: A Central American Civilization

The ancient Maya once occupied a vast geographic area in Central America. Their civilization inhabited an area that encompasses Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula and parts of the states of Chiapas and Tabasco, as well as Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador. From the third to the ninth century, Maya civilization produced awe-inspiring temples and pyramids, highly accurate calendars, mathematics, hieroglyphics, and a complex social and political order.

Origins and Flourishing of Maya Culture

Maya culture can be traced back to 1500 BC, entering the Classic period around 300 AD and flourishing between 600 and 900 AD. Urban centers were important to the Maya during the Classic period, offering them... Continue reading "Ancient Maya Civilization: Culture, Achievements, and Legacy" »

Industrialization: Definitions and Global Distribution

Types of Industries

Consumer Goods Industry

Examples: Bread, clothing

Heavy Industry

Example: Fire (representing energy production)

Capital Goods Industry

Example: Cars

Industrial Areas

Silicon Valley

A nickname for the southern portion of the San Francisco Bay Area, known for its concentration of computer companies.

Science Parks vs. Industrial Estates

Science Parks: Focus on high technology and promote research through collaboration between universities, businesses, and government.

Industrial Estates: Gather traditional industries in a physical location.

Major Industrial Areas

The Spanish Arrival in the Americas (1492)

Christopher Columbus set sail from the port of Palos (Huelva) on 3rd August 1492, heading for the Canary Islands. The expedition comprised three ships (one nao and two caravels) and approximately three hundred men.

They arrived at Guanahani Island in the Bahamas, which Columbus named San Salvador. To impose their sovereignty on the discovered territories, the Catholic Monarchs requested a papal bull from the Pope. The Kingdom of Portugal protested, leading to an agreement: the signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal.

Pre-Columbian America

When Europeans arrived in the Americas, they encountered diverse inhabitants, known as Amerindians,... Continue reading "The Spanish Conquest and Pre-Columbian Civilizations" »