Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Dividing the World

Globalization's Influence

Globalization has extended the culture and way of life of the USA and some European countries to the rest of the world.

The world today can be divided into two main parts: central areas and peripheral areas.

Global Cities

Global cities (New York, London, Tokyo, Paris, Berlin) are the main decision-making centers where multinational companies, large banks, and important international organizations are located.

Support for Globalization

Supporters of globalization include international organizations like the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the G8, and the G20. They use the following arguments:

• Globalization promotes the exchange of goods, services, capital, and people.

Causes of the Industrial Revolution

The year 1750 marked the beginning of a profound process of industrialization in Great Britain, a transformation that continued throughout the 19th century. This era saw significant technological advances that reshaped the economy, as industry expanded and traditional agriculture became less dominant.

Several key factors contributed to the onset of the Industrial Revolution:

• Improved Living Conditions: In the 18th century, advancements in hygiene, nutrition, and medicine led to improved living conditions. This resulted in significant population growth, which in turn increased demand for food and other goods, while also providing a large workforce for emerging industries.
• Agricultural Revolution: The enclosure

The Early Middle Ages: 600 A.C. Waves of invaders swept across Europe. Trade slowed to a trickle, towns emptied, and learning virtually ceased. It was relatively a backward region largely cut off from advanced civilizations in the Middle East, China, and India. Slowly, though, a new European Civilization would emerge that blended Greco-Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions, called medieval civilization…

Geography of Western Europe

Geography of Western Europe: Rome had linked its distant European territories with miles of roads and had spread classical ideas, the Latin language, and Christianity to the tribal peoples of Western Europe, but Rome was a Mediterranean power. The Germanic peoples who ended Roman rule in the West shifted the focus... Continue reading "The Early Middle Ages: Setting the Scene" »

Rise of the Living Standards

• Assembly-line construction techniques applied to houses or “little boxes”.
• Increase in car ownership.
• The 1956 Interstate Highways Act → new roads.
• Existence of long-term low-interest mortgages (Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944).

Racial factors: The “white flight,” e.g., Levittown (racial housing discrimination, redlining, and Mortgage discrimination)

Levittown: The Imperfect Rise of the American Suburbs

By Crystal Galyean --  In 1947, entrepreneur Abraham Levitt and his two sons, William and Alfred, broke ground on a planned community located in Nassau County, Long Island. Within a few years, the Levitts had transformed the former farmland into a suburban community housing thousands of men— many of whom... Continue reading "The Rise of Suburbia in the 1950s: Levittown and the American Dream" »

Did All Americans Benefit from the Boom?

Farmers and workers in many other industries, such as coal, leather, and textiles, did not benefit much.

• Coal suffered from competition from oil and electricity companies.
• Leather and textiles faced domestic competition.
• Industries struggled to compete with cheap labor in the South.
• Growth of industries, but no new jobs (machinery doubled production).

42% of Americans lived below the poverty line. Millions of unemployed people didn't share in the boom. It was a consumer-led boom, driven by ordinary families buying things for their homes, so demand began to tail off.

Chicago in the 1920s

Chicago was one of America's biggest cities.

It was a center of the steel, meat, and clothing industries that involved unskilled... Continue reading "American Economic Boom of the 1920s: Benefits and Contrasts" »

Advantages and Disadvantages of Agricultural Enclosures within Vijayanagara City

Enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of the Vijayanagara empire offered both advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages:

• Protected agricultural land from enemy attacks and wild animals.
• Allowed for the storage of large quantities of grain in granaries within fortified areas, ensuring food security during sieges.

Disadvantages:

• Increased the cost and complexity of defending the city.
• Made it more difficult for farmers to access their fields during times of peace.

Significance of the Rituals Associated with the Mahanavami Dibba

The Mahanavami dibba, a massive platform located on one of the highest points in Vijayanagara, was the site of important rituals during... Continue reading "Vijayanagara Empire: Agricultural Enclosures, Mahanavami Dibba Rituals, and Ordinary Life" »

European Exploration in the Early Modern Period

During the early modern period, European expeditions explored many new parts of the world. At the beginning of the 15th century, Europeans had limited geographical knowledge. They were very familiar with all of Europe. They also knew about India, China, and Japan because travelers and merchants like Marco Polo brought silk, spices, and other products back from Asia. Silk and spices were highly appreciated in medieval Europe. The merchants carried them along the Silk Road. In 1453, the Turks conquered Constantinople and occupied the Byzantine Empire.

Cartography

Portolan charts were nautical charts showing coasts, sea routes, and possible obstacles.

Navigational Instruments

Compass was probably brought... Continue reading "Exploration and Trade in the Early Modern Period" »

A Mixed Legacy

Not all communities replicated the racial tensions of Levittown. Quaker-built Concord Park in Pennsylvania, for example, was built under the motto "Democracy in Housing" and embraced diverse residents. In 1962, President John F. Kennedy issued an Executive Order prohibiting racial discrimination in federally assisted housing developments. This was a crucial step, but the fight for integration continued house by house, street by street.

The Levittown Image

Following Levittown's success on Long Island, Levitt and Sons built two more, in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. The uniform houses and immaculate lawns of Levittown created a lasting impression, conjuring images of peaceful, wholesome suburban life.

Challenges and Contradictions

However,... Continue reading "Levittown and the Rise of the American Suburbs" »

Dual-Use Technology

Technology that might be used normally for civilian purposes but can also apply to military applications. An example of dual-use technology is nuclear power. Uranium enrichment process can have two applications: Electricity and Weapons. Thirty countries use nuclear power for electricity, operating 460 commercial nuclear power plants, supplying 14% of the world’s electricity; and 56 countries operate 250 research reactors. The problem is that the material produced by commercial nuclear reactors (Plutonium) can explode; therefore, some countries use it for military purposes, as a threat for other nations such as North Korea. An example would be missiles, which were used for military aggression during the Cold War but also... Continue reading "Dual-Use Tech, Nuclear Treaties, and Global Economic & Political Concepts" »

Erosion, Transport, and Sedimentation

Erosion: The process that wears out rocks on the surface with the help of ice, water, and humans. Plateaus are high plains resulting from the erosion process.

Transport: The movement of eroded materials.

Sedimentation: The deposition of materials in another location.

Landforms

Mountains and Valleys

Mountains: Elevated landforms with significant relief.

Mountain Ridges: Linear chains of connected mountain peaks.

Valleys: Elongated areas of low land between mountains.

Basins and Plains

Basin: Depressed areas where a river and its tributaries flow.

Plains: Areas of flat land with an elevation below 300m, often found near the coast or in river basins.

Plateaus and Depressions

Plateaus: High, raised areas of flat land.

Depressions: