Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Backgrounds

Commercial, Scientific, and Intellectual Revolutions.

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was a change in the way goods were produced and distributed, shifting from human and animal power to machines. Key improvements occurred in Agriculture, Demography, Transportation, and Communication.

Comparison: Domestic vs. Factory Systems

• Domestic System: Method (tools), Location (home), Ownership (hand tools owned by the worker).
• Factory System: Method (machines), Location (factory), Ownership (owned by the capitalist).

Why England?

Several factors contributed to the Industrial Revolution beginning in England:

• Capital for investigating the means of production.
• Colonies and markets for manufactured goods.
• Availability of raw materials.

Defining Culture

Culture is a set of customs typical of a country. It involves the ability to transmit knowledge, beliefs, laws, and morals. It is a collection of traditions, rules, and a way of living.

United States at a Glance

Demographics and Geography

• Area: 9 million km²
• Population: 300 million people
• Urban Population: 82% of the population resides in cities

Ethnic Composition

• White: 72% of the population
• Latino: 16%
• African American: 12.6%
• Asian: 4.8%
• Native American: Below 1%

Basic Knowledge

• The USA is composed of 50 states.
• The last state admitted was Hawaii.
• Five Biggest Cities: New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Phoenix, and Philadelphia.
• New York Population: 8 million
• Los Angeles Population: 4 million

US Government and History

Foundations of Government

• First

When was the UN Charter Adopted?

The charter of the United Nations was signed on June 26th, 1945, and came into force on October 24th, 1945.

Which Organ of the UN is an Impartial Legal Body?

The International Court of Justice (ICJ) serves as an impartial body for settling legal disputes among states in accordance with international law.

Which UN Organ Provides Leadership and Prepares the Budget?

The Secretary-General provides leadership, prepares the budget, submits an annual report to the General Assembly, and presents issues to the Security Council.

Which Two Institutions Were Created at Bretton Woods in 1944?

The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) were created at Bretton Woods in 1944.

What Does the Acronym GATT Stand For?

GATT... Continue reading "Key Facts on International Organizations and Treaties" »

Long-Term Growth Inequality: The Malthusian Trap

Global inequality is not just a difference between countries; it also exists within the same country. While disparities between nations have grown, inequality within individual countries has also risen. OECD nations tend toward equality, as described by the Kuznets Curve, which relates GDP (economic growth) to inequality (Gini coefficient). Modern economics suggests that inequality initially increases, reaches a peak, and then decreases. Reasons for this include:

• Initial GDP is used primarily for basic subsistence.
• Racial diversity.
• Colonial history.
• Migration as a primary solution.

Evolution of Inequality

During the second wave of globalization, human capital became more significant, and protectionism... Continue reading "Global Income Inequality: Trends, Drivers, and Measurement" »

Global Migration Trends

People have always migrated, but migration has increased dramatically over the past two centuries. The majority of migrations are internal; the UN estimates that about 740 million people are internal migrants.

Main Reasons for Migration

• The high cost of transport to distant countries.
• Preference for destinations with a similar culture.
• Immigration restrictions in destination countries.

Internal vs. International Migration

• Internal migration: In developing countries, migration occurs due to rural exodus. In developed countries, migration occurs between cities for study or work.
• International migration: Three major international flows can be distinguished. Migrations between developed countries generally involve skilled workers,

Early Middle Ages

The Break-up of the Roman Empire

In AD 324, the emperor Constantine I founded the city of Constantinople on the site of Ancient Byzantium.

All people living beyond Roman borders were considered Barbarians.

• The Huns were nomadic animal herders who traveled across the Asian steppe. They attacked Germanic people.
• The Germanic peoples lived in the north and east of Europe. Many eastern tribes were nomadic. They were organized into tribes, each tribe had an assembly that elected a chieftain.

Romans built fortifications along the Rhine and Danube rivers.

Germanic tribes became a real threat in the 3rd century AD, when the Roman Empire suffered a serious economic and social crisis.

Some Germanic tribes carried out violent attacks on Roman... Continue reading "The Fall of the Roman Empire: Germanic Invasions and the Rise of New Kingdoms" »

Population Pyramid Description (2000)

Question: Describe the population pyramid of the country in the year 2000.

Answer Guidelines

• The pyramid exhibits a broad base, a youthful structure, or a broad base and a narrow top.
• It has a tapering or concave shape, showing a significant decline in numbers for each successive age group.
• Further observation or quantification is necessary for the award of full marks, such as: gender differences, fewer 0–4 year old children, similar sizes for 0–19 age groups (or some recent regression), or identifying a high youthful dependency ratio.

Reasons for Gender Imbalances (2025)

Question: Suggest reasons for the gender imbalances in the population pyramid in the year 2025.

Answer Guidelines

The strongest responses... Continue reading "Population Pyramids, Gender Imbalance, and Disease Economics" »

In 2001, James O’Neill of Goldman Sachs authored a paper titled “Building Better Global Economic BRICs.” The BRICs acronym in the title referred to:

• Brazil
• Russia
• India
• China

These nations are reshaping the international economy with the potential to transform global trade and capital flows. BRICs are large economies, ranking among the world’s top 10 in population and top 11 in GDP. They have undergone reforms that have transformed them, making them more internationally integrated and central to the future of the world economy.

In 2010, these countries accounted for approximately 41 percent of the world’s population and 25 percent of world GDP when measured in PPP terms.

21st Century Growth

China (Post-1978)

• Prior to 1978, private enterprise

Technological Progress in Pre-Industrial Europe

Ancient Innovations and Stagnation

In comparison to ancient times, the Middle Ages seem to have been more innovative and fruitful for technological development benefiting the population at large. While there were significantly more innovations in China than in Europe during certain periods, why did conditions stagnate in Europe initially?

Pre-Roman and Transitional Innovations

Various mechanical innovations were established in pre-Roman times, such as salt extraction and domestic tools. Innovations dating to the pre-Roman transition include the harvester, barrel, and soap.

Roman Era Developments and Limitations

In ancient times, developments included central heating, cement, and various architectural... Continue reading "Pre-Industrial European Technology: Ancient Roots, Medieval Rise" »

Ideologies

Socialism

• Private property accepted
• Parliamentary system with powerful state
• Economy led by state
• Proletarians control political power (peacefully)

Communism

• No ownership
• Transition based on revolution
• Economy and means of production controlled by the state
• Classless society
• Proletarians control political power (using violence)

Anarchism

• No property
• Disappearance of state and political parties
• Self-management of free associations without obligations
• Rejection of all types of authority

Liberalism/Capitalism

• Individualism based on guaranteed private property
• Economic freedom regulated by market demand
• Class-based society
• Bourgeoisie controls economy and political power

French Revolution

Key Events

• National Assembly in the Jeu de Paume
• Bastille Day, the beginning