Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Continents of the World

Europe

Relief:

• Alps
• Carpathians
• Caucasus
• Ural Mountains
• Great European Plain

Water:

• Rhine River
• Danube River
• Dnieper River
• Don River
• Volga River
• Lake Ladoga

Climate:

• Mediterranean
• Forest
• Continental
• High Mountains

Landscape:

• Mediterranean Forest
• Deciduous Forest
• Prairies
• Woodland

Fauna:

• Wild Pigs
• Eagles
• Foxes
• Bulls
• Rabbits

Asia

Relief:

• Himalayas
• Plateau of Tibet
• Mount Everest
• Siberian Plateau
• The Archipelago of Japan

Water:

• Yenisey River
• Lena River
• Yangtze River
• Amur River
• Euphrates River
• Ganges River

Climate:

• Dry
• Equatorial
• Tropical
• Desert
• Mediterranean

Landscape:

• Deciduous Forest
• Steppe
• Taiga
• Savanna
• Tundra

Fauna:

• Pandas
• Tigers
• Asian Elephants
• Bears
• Deer

Africa

Relief:

• Rifts
• Valleys
• Drakensberg
• Sahara Desert

Water:

• Nile River
• Niger River
• Congo River
• Lake Victoria
• Orange River

Climate:

• Mediterranean
• Desert
• Equatorial
• Tropical

Natural Cycles

In nature, chemical elements vital to life, such as oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen, are neither made nor destroyed. They are recycled, moving round and round in the natural world in the form of minerals and nutrients. On land, they move from the soil into the plants, then into animals that eat plants, and then sometimes into other animals that eat plant-eating animals. Minerals and nutrients return to the soil either through an animal’s droppings, or whenever any plant or animal dies and rots away. Microorganisms in the soil, such as bacteria, play an important part in releasing the nutrients and minerals from the decaying matter.

Polar Lands

The North Pole is surrounded by the permanently icy Arctic Ocean. At the opposite end of... Continue reading "Natural Cycles and Diverse Ecosystems" »

The Early Modern Age (1453-1789)

Economy

Societies began to experience:

• Increased Agricultural Production: The three-field system was maintained.
• Intensified Commercial Activity: Increased agricultural production resulted in a surplus (excess food production). Products were sold in city markets, and new trade routes appeared.
• Expansion of Craftsmanship: The domestic system was created.
• New Products were brought to Europe.

• Development of Mercantile Capitalism: An economic system in which capital belonged to private owners. Economic growth led to the development of banking.
• Providing Loans: Bankers lent money in exchange for the return of the same amount plus interest.
• New Forms of Payment: The bill of exchange was created (a document that guaranteed

Age of Industrialisation Proto Industrialisation

The period of industrialization before the first factories came up in Europe is termed as proto-industrialization. This period was marked by merchants from towns getting products made in villages.

Reasons for focus of merchants on villages:

• Powerful trade and craft guilds in urban areas
• Controlled competition and prices
• Prevented entry of new players in the market

Features of proto-industrialization in Britain:

• Merchants supplied money to the peasants in the countryside
• Peasants motivated to produce products for an international market
• Land becoming scarce in villages
• Peasants looking for additional sources of income

The Coming Up Of Factory

The earliest factories in England came up in the 1730s. By late... Continue reading "Proto-Industrialization and the Rise of Factories in Britain and India" »

In the feudal system, the king, the nobles, the clerics, and peasants all had different responsibilities and rights. Basically, the system consists of:

• Somebody gave protection/land to someone else.
• In exchange, the other had to fight or work for their protection.

The King

The king was the ruler of the country and owned all the land. However, he didn't have a big army and was weak. This is why he needed the noblemen and their armies.

The Noblemen

The noblemen were the vassals of the king. They promised obedience and loyalty to the king in the ceremony of homage. They provided knights and in return received a land (fief). In their lands, as lords, they acted as judges and collected taxes for themselves.

Knights

Knights were less important nobles, were... Continue reading "Feudal System: Roles and Responsibilities of King, Nobles, and Peasants" »

The Kyoto Protocol: Reducing Greenhouse Gases

The Kyoto Protocol (KP) is a UN international treaty committing State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (primarily CO2) to combat global warming. It was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997.

Specific Goals and Challenges

• Initial Goal (2005–2012): To reduce the collective emission of greenhouse gases to a limit compared to 1990 levels.
• Extension (2012): The KP was technically extended until 2020, but its impact was limited to only 15% of global CO2 emissions.

Reasons for Limited Participation

This limitation was due to the lack of participation from many industrialized and emerging countries, including:

• USA
• Canada
• Japan
• Russia
• Belarus
• Ukraine
• New Zealand
• China
• India
• Brazil

The Paris Agreement (Post-Kyoto

Primary Wastewater Treatment: Physical Process

Following preliminary treatment, sewage water is pumped into the primary sedimentation tank. In this tank, the sedimentation of suspended solids and organic matter occurs. Approximately 50-70% of the solids settle down, leading to a reduction of about 30-40% in coliform organisms.

The organic matter that settles is called primary sludge, which is then removed by mechanically operated devices. The supernatant (effluent) remaining in the primary sedimentation tank still contains significant amounts of dissolved organic matter and microorganisms, which are subsequently removed during secondary treatment.

Ex Situ Conservation: Protecting Endangered Species

When a species becomes critically endangered,... Continue reading "Biodiversity Protection and Wastewater Management Strategies" »

Global Impact of 19th Century Imperialism

Imperialism's Effects on Metropoles and Colonies

The consequences of Imperialism differed significantly for the metropoles (colonizing powers) and the dominated nations (colonies).

Positive Outcomes for Imperial Powers (Metropoles)

Colonialism was generally positive for the metropoles. It provided:

• Political Power: Increased global influence and prestige.
• Economic Wealth: Access to raw materials and new markets for manufactured goods.
• Social Stability: Greater social peace domestically.
• Knowledge: Exposure to and knowledge of other civilizations.

However, this expansion also intensified international political and economic confrontations that would ultimately lead to World War I.

Negative Consequences for Colonized

Iconic French Attractions

• Eiffel Tower: Designed by Gustave Eiffel.
• Notre-Dame Cathedral: 800 years old; a medieval fortress and place of kings.
• Louvre Museum: Home to Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa.
• Champs-Élysées: Connects the Arc de Triomphe with Place de la Concorde.
• Palace of Versailles: Home to French kings, including Louis XIV and Marie Antoinette.
• Seine River: Famous for its riverboats crossing Paris.

French Cuisine

• Savory: Steak frites, ratatouille, bouillabaisse (fish soup), onion soup, snails (escargot), frog legs (cuisses de grenouille) with butter, and poutine.
• Condiments: Moutarde de Dijon.
• Pastries & Sweets: Brie cheese, macarons, croissants, crepes, eclairs au chocolat, and croquembouche.

Sports

• Tour de France
• Soccer (notable player:

Backgrounds

Commercial, Scientific, and Intellectual Revolutions.

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was a change in the way goods were produced and distributed, shifting from human and animal power to machines. Key improvements occurred in Agriculture, Demography, Transportation, and Communication.

Comparison: Domestic vs. Factory Systems

• Domestic System: Method (tools), Location (home), Ownership (hand tools owned by the worker).
• Factory System: Method (machines), Location (factory), Ownership (owned by the capitalist).

Why England?

Several factors contributed to the Industrial Revolution beginning in England:

• Capital for investigating the means of production.
• Colonies and markets for manufactured goods.
• Availability of raw materials.