Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Improvements in 19th Century Living Conditions

• Enhanced Nutrition

  Nutrition improved, making the population more resistant to illness. This was possible thanks to advances in agriculture and changes in people's diets. Corn and potatoes became staple foods.

• Public Health Advancements

  In 1796, Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine for smallpox, a disease with a high mortality rate. New hospitals were also built during this period.

• Personal and Public Hygiene

  People began to wear cotton clothes, which were easier to wash. There was better access to clean drinking water.

• Decline in Epidemics

  Frequent in the Early Modern period, epidemics began to cause fewer deaths.

19th Century Social Classes

• The Peasantry

  In the 19th century, the majority of the population

Unit 1: Population Evolution and Distribution

1. Evolution of the Spanish Population Since the 19th Century

The Spanish population began to grow steadily, albeit at a slower rate than in other European countries. By the second half of the 19th century, the population reached 15 million, eventually rising to 18.6 million due to falling death rates.

During the 20th century, Spain's population grew considerably, doubling by the early 1980s. Key historical factors include:

• 1900–1917: Significant emigration to America, with over 200,000 people leaving.
• 1918–1919: The flu pandemic caused a high number of deaths.
• Spanish Civil War: Resulted in the loss of 600,000 people.
• 1960–1975: Internal migration from rural to urban areas and emigration to Western

• Depletion of resources and pollution: Large populations require significant natural resources, which leads to resource depletion, increased pollution, and environmental damage.

Unit 2: The Natural Dynamics of the Population

1. Birth, Death, and Fertility Rates

• Birth rate: The number of children born in one year in a specific location. It is calculated by dividing the number of births by the total population and multiplying by 1,000.
• Fertility rate: The number of births in one year relative to the number of women of childbearing age in that location.
• Death rate: The number of deaths in one year in a specific location. It is calculated by dividing the number of deaths by the total population and multiplying by 1,000.

2. Natural Increase vs. Real Growth

• Natural

Past and Current Demographic Models

• The Preindustrial Model

  This model has high birth and death rates because the population is weakened by disease, epidemics, and famine.

• The Modern or Demographic Transition Model

  This model originated in the Industrial Revolution and spread worldwide during the 19th century.

  1. The first phase has strong population growth as a result of natural increase. Birth rates are high, and death rates fall rapidly.

  2. In the intermediate phase, natural increase slows down. Death rates remain low, but birth rates begin to fall.

  3. In the final phase, the population stagnates, or there is very slow growth. Both birth and death rates are very low, and the tendency is toward zero growth.

The Territorial Organization of Spain

Main Institutions

Setting Up a Multinational Branch

When establishing a branch of a multinational company, several critical factors are considered:

1. Cheap Labor: Access to affordable labor can significantly reduce operational costs.
2. Low Transportation Costs: Proximity to markets or raw materials can minimize logistics expenses.
3. Cheaper Industrial Land: Lower land acquisition or rental costs for industrial facilities.
4. Fiscal Benefits: Favorable tax policies, subsidies, or incentives offered by the host country.
5. Lower Production Costs: Overall reduction in expenses related to manufacturing or service delivery.
6. Favorable Political Circumstances: A stable political environment and supportive government policies.
7. Lower Tax on the Activity: Reduced tax burden on the specific

The Enlightenment and Its Core Ideals

The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on the pursuit of happiness, the sovereignty of reason, and the evidence of the senses as the primary sources of knowledge. It advanced ideals such as liberty, progress, toleration, fraternity, constitutional government, and the separation of church and state.

Political Liberalism and Key Thinkers

Political Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy based on liberty, the consent of the governed, and equality before the law. Liberals also ended mercantilist policies, royal monopolies, and other barriers to trade, instead promoting free trade and free markets.

Key Authors:

• Montesquieu
• Voltaire
• Rousseau

Enlightened Despotism

Enlightened despotism (or enlightened... Continue reading "Impact of Enlightenment and Revolutionary Ideals" »

The Industrial Revolution and Labor Origins

The labor movement emerged during the Industrial Revolution due to the lack of rights granted to workers in factories. It began in England, where, in the absence of regulation, workers were exposed to shifts exceeding twelve hours in unhealthy environments. They faced strict discipline, no security against illness, accidents, dismissal, or retirement, and received very low wages. Child labor was particularly prevalent, as children were attractive targets for employers because their wages were substantially lower.

Luddism and the Shift to Organized Resistance

The first manifestations of the labor movement were reflected in Luddism (the destruction of machines), which was blamed for the loss of purchasing... Continue reading "History and Evolution of the Labor Movement" »

Invasive Species in the United States

Outbreak populations of invasive species in the United States cover a land and water area approximately the size of California, at over 100,000,000 acres!

The annual economic cost (including impact and control measures) to the United States is well over $120 billion/year.

Characteristics of Invasive Plant Species

Invasive plant species owe their success to one or more of the following characteristics:

• They tend to be generalists that tolerate a variety of different habitats.
• They grow rapidly and often produce abundant seeds.
• They lack natural enemies (competitors, predators, parasites) in their new ecosystem.

Profiles of Invasive Species

Mile-a-Minute Vine

One found in Fowl Meadow on trip: mile-a-minute vine.

Melaleuca

SECONDARY SECTOR

Industry Overview

The secondary sector encompasses all activities that transform raw materials into finished goods. This sector plays a crucial role in economic development, as industrialization drives growth and prosperity. Developed countries typically have well-established industrial networks.

Types of Industries

Industries can be categorized based on their level of technological advancement and the intended use of their products.

1. By Degree of Innovation:

• Mature Industries: These industries, such as textiles, steel, and shipbuilding, emerged during the 18th and 19th centuries and utilize established technologies.
• Advanced Industries: Industries like biotechnology, microelectronics, telecommunications, and robotics represent

Tertiary Sector: Definition and Characteristics

TERTIARY SECTOR: Activities involved in delivering services to meet people's or companies' needs.

• Immaterial activities: Do not produce material goods.
• Low level of mechanization: Undertaken mainly by humans, not machines.
• Very heterogeneous: Includes many different types of services.
• Examples: Transport, communications, tourism, trade, health care and education.

Transport System

Transport system — Means of transport — Infrastructures

Elements Involved in Trade

• Supply and demand: Sellers and customers.
• Merchandise: Goods and services that are