Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Geography

Imperialism

It is the policy of extending a country's (mother country) domination over other regions (colonies). It began to be applied on a worldwide scale in the 19th century.

Factors

• Economic and demographic factors:
  • Industrialisation: Looked for areas in which they could invest capital for a greater profit, obtain cheap raw materials, and sell their industrial products.
  • Migration: Since there weren't enough jobs for all the people, many Europeans migrated to the colonies.

The Great Powers in the Late 19th Century

Liberalism: Separation of powers, new rights, universal male suffrage, socialist parties. Authoritarian: King had absolute power, parliaments couldn't oppose the monarch's decisions, military presence, ethnic and cultural diversity, very... Continue reading "Imperialism and the Rise of Colonial Rule: Factors, Effects, and the Causes of World War I" »

The Birth of the Modern World

Tense International Relations

The late 19th and early 20th centuries were marked by tense international relations. Industrialized countries focused on large-scale production, fueled by colonization and a growing consumer society. This led to inequalities and economic crises, causing a decline in the influence of realism in international politics.

Political Tensions in Europe

While armed conflicts were avoided within Europe, there was a significant increase in the production of arms and military equipment. Germany's foreign policy under Bismarck focused on alliances with Austria, Russia, and Italy, leading to the annexation of Alsace and Lorraine. Wilhelm II's dismissal of Bismarck and subsequent expansionist policies... Continue reading "The Second Industrial Revolution and the Rise of Imperialism" »

Dividing the World

Globalization's Influence

Globalization has extended the culture and way of life of the USA and some European countries to the rest of the world.

The world today can be divided into two main parts: central areas and peripheral areas.

Global Cities

Global cities (New York, London, Tokyo, Paris, Berlin) are the main decision-making centers where multinational companies, large banks, and important international organizations are located.

Support for Globalization

Supporters of globalization include international organizations like the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the G8, and the G20. They use the following arguments:

• Globalization promotes the exchange of goods, services, capital, and people.

The Early Middle Ages: 600 A.C. Waves of invaders swept across Europe. Trade slowed to a trickle, towns emptied, and learning virtually ceased. It was relatively a backward region largely cut off from advanced civilizations in the Middle East, China, and India. Slowly, though, a new European Civilization would emerge that blended Greco-Roman, Germanic, and Christian traditions, called medieval civilization…

Geography of Western Europe

Geography of Western Europe: Rome had linked its distant European territories with miles of roads and had spread classical ideas, the Latin language, and Christianity to the tribal peoples of Western Europe, but Rome was a Mediterranean power. The Germanic peoples who ended Roman rule in the West shifted the focus... Continue reading "The Early Middle Ages: Setting the Scene" »

Changes 2IR:

New sources of finance:A join-stock company was a companymade up of individuals who each contributed a part of the capital. Each bought shares in the business, and received profits or losses./The bank lent money to businesses in return for interest. This led to a union between financial and industrial capital./The stock exchange was amarketplace where shares in companies were brought and sold.

New technological advances:Led to an increase in production and industrial development./The improvement of the Bessemer converter helped lower the cost of producing steel./Dynamite, stainless steel, and artificial fibres, such as artificial silk made form cellulose, were important innovations and inventions of this era.

New sources of energy:

Rise of the Living Standards

• Assembly-line construction techniques applied to houses or “little boxes”.
• Increase in car ownership.
• The 1956 Interstate Highways Act → new roads.
• Existence of long-term low-interest mortgages (Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944).

Racial factors: The “white flight,” e.g., Levittown (racial housing discrimination, redlining, and Mortgage discrimination)

Levittown: The Imperfect Rise of the American Suburbs

By Crystal Galyean --  In 1947, entrepreneur Abraham Levitt and his two sons, William and Alfred, broke ground on a planned community located in Nassau County, Long Island. Within a few years, the Levitts had transformed the former farmland into a suburban community housing thousands of men— many of whom... Continue reading "The Rise of Suburbia in the 1950s: Levittown and the American Dream" »

Did All Americans Benefit from the Boom?

Farmers and workers in many other industries, such as coal, leather, and textiles, did not benefit much.

• Coal suffered from competition from oil and electricity companies.
• Leather and textiles faced domestic competition.
• Industries struggled to compete with cheap labor in the South.
• Growth of industries, but no new jobs (machinery doubled production).

42% of Americans lived below the poverty line. Millions of unemployed people didn't share in the boom. It was a consumer-led boom, driven by ordinary families buying things for their homes, so demand began to tail off.

Chicago in the 1920s

Chicago was one of America's biggest cities.

It was a center of the steel, meat, and clothing industries that involved unskilled... Continue reading "American Economic Boom of the 1920s: Benefits and Contrasts" »

Advantages and Disadvantages of Agricultural Enclosures within Vijayanagara City

Enclosing agricultural land within the fortified area of the Vijayanagara empire offered both advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages:

• Protected agricultural land from enemy attacks and wild animals.
• Allowed for the storage of large quantities of grain in granaries within fortified areas, ensuring food security during sieges.

Disadvantages:

• Increased the cost and complexity of defending the city.
• Made it more difficult for farmers to access their fields during times of peace.

Significance of the Rituals Associated with the Mahanavami Dibba

The Mahanavami dibba, a massive platform located on one of the highest points in Vijayanagara, was the site of important rituals during... Continue reading "Vijayanagara Empire: Agricultural Enclosures, Mahanavami Dibba Rituals, and Ordinary Life" »

European Exploration in the Early Modern Period

During the early modern period, European expeditions explored many new parts of the world. At the beginning of the 15th century, Europeans had limited geographical knowledge. They were very familiar with all of Europe. They also knew about India, China, and Japan because travelers and merchants like Marco Polo brought silk, spices, and other products back from Asia. Silk and spices were highly appreciated in medieval Europe. The merchants carried them along the Silk Road. In 1453, the Turks conquered Constantinople and occupied the Byzantine Empire.

Cartography

Portolan charts were nautical charts showing coasts, sea routes, and possible obstacles.

Navigational Instruments

Compass was probably brought... Continue reading "Exploration and Trade in the Early Modern Period" »

A Mixed Legacy

Not all communities replicated the racial tensions of Levittown. Quaker-built Concord Park in Pennsylvania, for example, was built under the motto "Democracy in Housing" and embraced diverse residents. In 1962, President John F. Kennedy issued an Executive Order prohibiting racial discrimination in federally assisted housing developments. This was a crucial step, but the fight for integration continued house by house, street by street.

The Levittown Image

Following Levittown's success on Long Island, Levitt and Sons built two more, in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. The uniform houses and immaculate lawns of Levittown created a lasting impression, conjuring images of peaceful, wholesome suburban life.

Challenges and Contradictions

However,... Continue reading "Levittown and the Rise of the American Suburbs" »