Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Natural Cycles

In nature, chemical elements vital to life, such as oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen, are neither made nor destroyed. They are recycled, moving round and round in the natural world in the form of minerals and nutrients. On land, they move from the soil into the plants, then into animals that eat plants, and then sometimes into other animals that eat plant-eating animals. Minerals and nutrients return to the soil either through an animal’s droppings, or whenever any plant or animal dies and rots away. Microorganisms in the soil, such as bacteria, play an important part in releasing the nutrients and minerals from the decaying matter.

Polar Lands

The North Pole is surrounded by the permanently icy Arctic Ocean. At the opposite end of... Continue reading "Natural Cycles and Diverse Ecosystems" »

The Early Modern Age (1453-1789)

Economy

Societies began to experience:

• Increased Agricultural Production: The three-field system was maintained.
• Intensified Commercial Activity: Increased agricultural production resulted in a surplus (excess food production). Products were sold in city markets, and new trade routes appeared.
• Expansion of Craftsmanship: The domestic system was created.
• New Products were brought to Europe.

• Development of Mercantile Capitalism: An economic system in which capital belonged to private owners. Economic growth led to the development of banking.
• Providing Loans: Bankers lent money in exchange for the return of the same amount plus interest.
• New Forms of Payment: The bill of exchange was created (a document that guaranteed

Age of Industrialisation Proto Industrialisation

The period of industrialization before the first factories came up in Europe is termed as proto-industrialization. This period was marked by merchants from towns getting products made in villages.

Reasons for focus of merchants on villages:

• Powerful trade and craft guilds in urban areas
• Controlled competition and prices
• Prevented entry of new players in the market

Features of proto-industrialization in Britain:

• Merchants supplied money to the peasants in the countryside
• Peasants motivated to produce products for an international market
• Land becoming scarce in villages
• Peasants looking for additional sources of income

The Coming Up Of Factory

The earliest factories in England came up in the 1730s. By late... Continue reading "Proto-Industrialization and the Rise of Factories in Britain and India" »

In the feudal system, the king, the nobles, the clerics, and peasants all had different responsibilities and rights. Basically, the system consists of:

• Somebody gave protection/land to someone else.
• In exchange, the other had to fight or work for their protection.

The King

The king was the ruler of the country and owned all the land. However, he didn't have a big army and was weak. This is why he needed the noblemen and their armies.

The Noblemen

The noblemen were the vassals of the king. They promised obedience and loyalty to the king in the ceremony of homage. They provided knights and in return received a land (fief). In their lands, as lords, they acted as judges and collected taxes for themselves.

Knights

Knights were less important nobles, were... Continue reading "Feudal System: Roles and Responsibilities of King, Nobles, and Peasants" »

The Kyoto Protocol: Reducing Greenhouse Gases

The Kyoto Protocol (KP) is a UN international treaty committing State Parties to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (primarily CO2) to combat global warming. It was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997.

Specific Goals and Challenges

• Initial Goal (2005–2012): To reduce the collective emission of greenhouse gases to a limit compared to 1990 levels.
• Extension (2012): The KP was technically extended until 2020, but its impact was limited to only 15% of global CO2 emissions.

Reasons for Limited Participation

This limitation was due to the lack of participation from many industrialized and emerging countries, including:

• USA
• Canada
• Japan
• Russia
• Belarus
• Ukraine
• New Zealand
• China
• India
• Brazil

The Paris Agreement (Post-Kyoto

Primary Wastewater Treatment: Physical Process

Following preliminary treatment, sewage water is pumped into the primary sedimentation tank. In this tank, the sedimentation of suspended solids and organic matter occurs. Approximately 50-70% of the solids settle down, leading to a reduction of about 30-40% in coliform organisms.

The organic matter that settles is called primary sludge, which is then removed by mechanically operated devices. The supernatant (effluent) remaining in the primary sedimentation tank still contains significant amounts of dissolved organic matter and microorganisms, which are subsequently removed during secondary treatment.

Ex Situ Conservation: Protecting Endangered Species

When a species becomes critically endangered,... Continue reading "Biodiversity Protection and Wastewater Management Strategies" »

Defining Culture

Culture is a set of customs typical of a country. It involves the ability to transmit knowledge, beliefs, laws, and morals. It is a collection of traditions, rules, and a way of living.

United States at a Glance

Demographics and Geography

• Area: 9 million km²
• Population: 300 million people
• Urban Population: 82% of the population resides in cities

Ethnic Composition

• White: 72% of the population
• Latino: 16%
• African American: 12.6%
• Asian: 4.8%
• Native American: Below 1%

Basic Knowledge

• The USA is composed of 50 states.
• The last state admitted was Hawaii.
• Five Biggest Cities: New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, Phoenix, and Philadelphia.
• New York Population: 8 million
• Los Angeles Population: 4 million

US Government and History

Foundations of Government

• First

When was the UN Charter Adopted?

The charter of the United Nations was signed on June 26th, 1945, and came into force on October 24th, 1945.

Which Organ of the UN is an Impartial Legal Body?

The International Court of Justice (ICJ) serves as an impartial body for settling legal disputes among states in accordance with international law.

Which UN Organ Provides Leadership and Prepares the Budget?

The Secretary-General provides leadership, prepares the budget, submits an annual report to the General Assembly, and presents issues to the Security Council.

Which Two Institutions Were Created at Bretton Woods in 1944?

The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) were created at Bretton Woods in 1944.

What Does the Acronym GATT Stand For?

GATT... Continue reading "Key Facts on International Organizations and Treaties" »

Early Middle Ages

The Break-up of the Roman Empire

In AD 324, the emperor Constantine I founded the city of Constantinople on the site of Ancient Byzantium.

All people living beyond Roman borders were considered Barbarians.

• The Huns were nomadic animal herders who traveled across the Asian steppe. They attacked Germanic people.
• The Germanic peoples lived in the north and east of Europe. Many eastern tribes were nomadic. They were organized into tribes, each tribe had an assembly that elected a chieftain.

Romans built fortifications along the Rhine and Danube rivers.

Germanic tribes became a real threat in the 3rd century AD, when the Roman Empire suffered a serious economic and social crisis.

Some Germanic tribes carried out violent attacks on Roman... Continue reading "The Fall of the Roman Empire: Germanic Invasions and the Rise of New Kingdoms" »

Population Pyramid Description (2000)

Question: Describe the population pyramid of the country in the year 2000.

Answer Guidelines

• The pyramid exhibits a broad base, a youthful structure, or a broad base and a narrow top.
• It has a tapering or concave shape, showing a significant decline in numbers for each successive age group.
• Further observation or quantification is necessary for the award of full marks, such as: gender differences, fewer 0–4 year old children, similar sizes for 0–19 age groups (or some recent regression), or identifying a high youthful dependency ratio.

Reasons for Gender Imbalances (2025)

Question: Suggest reasons for the gender imbalances in the population pyramid in the year 2025.

Answer Guidelines

The strongest responses... Continue reading "Population Pyramids, Gender Imbalance, and Disease Economics" »