Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Second Industrial Revolution and Imperialism

The Second Industrial Revolution (1870-1914)

The Second Industrial Revolution, taking place between 1870 and 1914, was characterized by rapid industrialization. This was primarily due to the increased importance of the financial sector in industry and the rise of finance capitalism.

Innovations and Changes

Production increased because of the following factors:

• New sources of finance: To establish businesses, owners had to find new sources of finance, such as joint-stock companies, the stock exchange, and banks.
• New technological advances: Improvements to the Bessemer converter, dynamite, stainless steel, and artificial fibers.
• New business structures: Cartels, holding companies, and trusts.
• New sources

Importance of World Trade

International trade is important because of the unequal distribution of natural resources, the differences between the economies of different states, and the interests of large companies in capturing part of the world market.

Key Global Trading Regions

• USA: The world's main importer and the second largest exporter. Its production is higher than any other country.
• EU: The world's largest trading bloc. Member states are small but wealthy, and they import and export a great many products.
• Australia: Does a lot of trade in the Pacific and with East Asian countries.
• Africa: Contributes little to international trade because of its level of poverty.
• Middle Eastern Countries (Saudi Arabia): Primarily export oil.
• Southeast Asia: Do

The Road to Brazilian Independence (1815–1822)

Brazil was inhabited by the royal court led by King Dom João VI. In 1815, he named his son, Dom Pedro, the Regent Prince, giving him authority to govern Brazil when the King left or died.

The Constitutional Crisis and the Return to Portugal

In 1820, Portugal experienced the Constitutional Revolution, initiated by liberal constitutionalists. This movement led to the constituent assembly's meeting (known as the Cortes), which decided to create the first constitution of the kingdom and to demand the return of King Dom João from Brazil.

On April 26, 1821, the King left Brazil in the hands of his son Dom Pedro and returned to Portugal.

Military Manipulation and Dom Pedro's Resolve

The military took the... Continue reading "Dom Pedro I and Brazil's Declaration of Independence (1822)" »

Modes of Acculturation: Opening New Horizons

The Origins of Orientalism

• The beginnings of an academic interest in Oriental languages and literature in Britain can be traced back to the early 17th century.
• There were both secular and religious reasons for this interest.
• Following the Protestant Reformation and the challenge to the doctrinal authority of the Latin Vulgate, a knowledge of Arabic had come to be seen as an important adjunct to the philological skills of Hebrew and Greek Bible translators.
• At the same time, there was renewed scientific and medical interest in Arabic, once it was recognized that the Latin translations of several important medieval scientific treatises were of questionable reliability.
• Chairs of Arabic were established at

The Dynastic Union of Castile and Aragon

At the end of the 15th century, the Catholic Monarchs, Isabel I of Castile and Fernando II of Aragon, established an authoritarian monarchy on the Iberian Peninsula.

In 1469, Isabel married Fernando, the Crown Prince of Aragon. When the King of Castile died, a civil war broke out between the followers of Juana la Beltraneja and those of Isabel. The conflict ended in 1479 with the victory of Isabel. In the same year, Fernando became the King of Aragon. This resulted in the dynastic union of Castile and Aragon. Each kingdom retained its own institutions, laws, language, currency, and internal boundaries.

Domestic Reforms: Centralizing Power

Weakening the Power of the Nobility

• A permanent army.
• Military Orders

Population Ageing and Demographic Shifts

Causes of Population Ageing

• Decline of the fertility rate: The number of children per woman has fallen significantly.
• In developed countries, many women go out to work and wait longer to have their first child.
• In emerging and less developed countries, child mortality has fallen.
• The increase in life expectancy: People now live longer than in the early 20th century.

Consequences of Population Ageing

• General population replacement does not take place effectively.
• Governments need to spend more on health care, pensions, and retirement homes.
• Older people often have lower incomes and tend to save more.
• Ageing populations require increased health and leisure services.

Understanding City Characteristics and Structure

Defining

The Rapid Rise of Plastic Pollution

Plastic pollution is damaging our environment rapidly. Waste plastic material is hard to dispose of and contributes to major pollution on Earth. This has become a cause of global concern in recent times. With the increasing use of plastic bags, utensils, and furniture, the amount of plastic waste has also gone up, and so has plastic pollution.

It is time we must take this problem seriously and work towards eradicating it, because it is causing significant damage to humans, animals, and plants. Our planet is suffering, and we need to stop this trend.

The Ubiquitous Threat to Ocean Ecosystems

Plastic pollution is already one of the most serious threats to ocean ecosystems. Scientists realize that plastic is ubiquitous—it... Continue reading "Global Crisis: Mitigating Plastic Pollution and Waste Management" »

What Was the Enlightenment? (La Ilustración)

• It was a period characterized by:
  • Confidence in reason to understand the world.
  • Faith in human progress, science, and education.
  • Criticism of the Old Regime, specifically:
    • Privileged estates.
    • Religious intolerance.
  • Emphasis on equality and liberty.
• Enlightenment ideas were spread through academies, books, newspapers, and salons, which were meetings organized in people’s homes.
• Some thinkers, such as D’Alembert and Diderot, created The Encyclopaedia, an extensive collection of writings which summarized knowledge from many areas of study.

Political Ideas of the Enlightenment

• Enlightenment thinkers wanted to abolish the estates system (sociedad estamental) and make all citizens equal before the law.
• Montesquieu