Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Chemistry

C

Circumnavigate

To sail or travel all the way around.

Citadel

A fortress defending a city.

Clandestine

Concealed or secret for an evil purpose.

Classic

Of the highest quality.

Cleave

To cling.

Climatic

Having to do with the climate.

Cloister

Covered walk, with columns on one side.

Clone

An exact duplicate.

Clout

A blow.

Cloy

To cause to feel too full when eating; overly sweet.

Coddle

To baby.

Cogitate

To ponder.

Cohort

A group.

Commemorate

To honor the memory of.

Commiserate

To express sorrow or sympathy for.

Commodious

Spacious, roomy.

Compatible

Harmonious.

Competent

Capable.

Compile

To gather together.

Comply

To act or be in accordance with.

Composed

Calm.

Compromise

A settlement of differences in which each side gives up something.

Compunction

Remorse.

Concave

Curved inward.

Concede

To

Binary Compounds

Binary Oxygen Compounds (Oxides)

Systematic Nomenclature

• Prefixes (mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-...) + oxide (element symbol).
• e.g., N₂O₅: Dinitrogen pentoxide.

Stock Nomenclature

• Oxide of (element) + (valence of element in Roman numerals).
• e.g., N₂O₅: Nitrogen(V) oxide.

Binary Hydrogen Compounds (Hydrides)

Metal Hydrides (Hydrogen + Metal)

Systematic Nomenclature

• Prefixes (mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-...) + hydride of (metal).
• e.g., CrH₃: Chromium trihydride.

Stock Nomenclature

• Hydride of (metal) + (valence of metal in Roman numerals).
• e.g., CrH₃: Chromium(III) hydride.

Volatile Hydrides (Hydrogen + Semimetal)

Systematic Nomenclature

• Prefixes (mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-...) + hydride of (semimetal).
• e.g., PH₃: Phosphorus trihydride.

Common Names

• Ammonia

Glass Manufacturing

Key Concepts in Glass Production

Glasses containing cuprous oxide have a red color.

The process used in the manufacture of glass is called continuous casting.

The most common fining agents used in glass manufacturing include nitrate and sodium antimony.

Opalescent substances commonly used in glass manufacturing include sodium silicate, cryolite, and calcium fluoride.

In glassmaking, soda ash and sodium sulfate act as fluxes.

Modern glass consists of a mixture of calcium oxide, sodium carbonate, and silica.

Bleaching agents used in glass manufacturing include manganese dioxide and selenium.

Types of Substances Used in Glassmaking

Vitrifiers: These substances transition from a crystalline structure to an amorphous structure under the... Continue reading "Glass and Paper Manufacturing Processes & Chemical Industry Overview" »

Essential Chemistry Concepts

1. Thermochemistry

Thermochemistry is the branch of chemistry that studies the changes in temperature that occur during a chemical reaction.

2. Heat of Formation

Heat of formation is the energy inherent in elements, which is transformed when it receives energy from an external source.

3. Heat of Reaction

Heat of reaction is the energy absorbed or released during a chemical reaction.

4. First Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of conservation of energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.

5. What is a Solution?

A solution is a mixture of two or more components with a uniform consistency.

6. Types of Solutions

• Homogeneous
• Heterogeneous
• Simple Solution
• Colloid
• Suspension

7.

Formulation of Oxides

To formulate oxides, write the element symbol followed by the oxygen symbol, then exchange their valencies and simplify if possible.

• Traditional Naming: Uses specific suffixes based on valency: -ic for one valency; -ous (lower) and -ic (higher) for two; hypo-...-ous, -ous, and -ic for three; and per-...-ic for four.
• Systematic Nomenclature: Uses prefixes such as mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, and hexa-.
• Stock Nomenclature: Uses the term "oxide" followed by the metal name and its valency in Roman numerals.

Examples:

• K₂O: Dipotassium monoxide / Potassium oxide
• N₂O₅: Dinitrogen pentoxide / Nitrogen oxide (V)

Hydrides

In hydrides, hydrogen acts with a valency of -1, and valencies are exchanged.

Examples:

• PbH₄: Lead(IV) tetrahydride

Experiment 1: Strength of Hydrochloric Acid

Aim

To determine the strength of the given dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) solution by titrating it against a standard sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) solution.

Chemicals Required

• Standard sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) solution
• Dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) solution
• Methyl orange indicator

Apparatus Required

• Burette
• Burette stand
• Pipette
• Conical flask
• Funnel

Chemical Reaction

Na₂CO₃ + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H₂O + CO₂

Principle

Normality is defined as the number of gram equivalents of solute present in one litre of solution. According to the law of equivalence, the relationship between the reacting solutions is given by:

N₁V₁ = N₂V₂

Where:
N₁ - Normality of HCl (unknown)
V₁ - Volume of HCl used
N₂ - Normality... Continue reading "Essential Engineering Chemistry Laboratory Experiments" »

Material Structure and Properties

Inter-Atomic Bonding

Different materials are made up of different types of bonds. The following are examples and characteristics of the chemical bonds that make up materials.

• Ionic Bonding
  

  Ionic bonding in NaCl. Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (2018). Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction.

  • Description: Found in compounds composed of metallic and nonmetallic elements; involves atoms at the extremes of the periodic table.
  • Process: Metallic atoms give up their valence electrons to nonmetallic atoms; atoms achieve stable inert gas configurations (filled orbital shells) and acquire electrical charges (become ions).
  • Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl) is a classic ionic material; a sodium atom transfers

• Isotopes

  • Same elements with different numbers of neutrons

• Ions

  • Same element with an unequal number of protons and electrons

• Electric Fields

  Things with charge (protons and electrons) generate electric fields (E) (Likewise, electric fields can affect things with charge)

• Energy and Matter

  When atoms or molecules “happen across” energy, [usually] 1 of 2 things can happen: 1) they wiggle-jiggle more [we classify the amount of “wiggling-jiggling” by the quantity of temperature] 2) the energy, if it is a) in the form of a special type of electromagnetic field and b) of a specific frequency, can be absorbed

  λ∙f = c

  λ = wavelength of the wave [m]

  f = frequency of the wave [Hertz, Hz=1/s]

  c = speed of light = 3∙108 m/s

  Electromagnetic Waves

•Animals, plants, fungi, and most protists depend on mitochondria for energy to grow and survive

•There are more than 100 known mitochondrial disorders (including Luft syndrome)

•Defective mitochondria also contribute to many age-related problems (including Alzheimer’s)

•Aerobic respiration

•Form of cellular respiration in eukaryotes and many prokaryotes

•Oxygen is a reactant in the ATP producing process

•Anaerobic respiration

•Form of cellular respiration in some prokaryotes

•A molecule other than oxygen, such as sulfate or nitrate, is used in the ATP-producing process

•Photosynthesis stores energy from sunlight in electron-rich fuel molecules (such as sugars)

•Cellular respiration moves electrons from fuel to other molecules... Continue reading "Mitochondria, Respiration, and Photosynthesis: Energy Processes in Cells" »