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Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

Short Adjectives (One Syllable)

Adjectives Ending in -y or -le

Longer Adjectives (Two or More Syllables)

Irregular Adjectives

As... As Comparisons

• My horse can run as fast as a car.
  Mi caballo puede correr tan rápido como un coche.
• He doesn't play

Constructivism in International Relations

One of the main assumptions of Western philosophy is the difference between nature and culture. The concept of nature is an important discovery of philosophy. Pre-philosophical societies did not make this distinction. Post-modernism doubts there is a radical distinction between nature and culture: they think this difference is not all that clear. International relations are accordingly not solely based on a natural reality (state of anarchy) but also on a social reality. Constructivism claims that tradition and culture result in the development of social phenomena. They believe international relations to be social and cultural. We do not obey any natural law but rather our own construction of ideas.

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The Theory of International Relations

Realism

Realists believe that society and politics are governed by objective laws rooted in human nature. To improve society, we must first understand these laws. They also believe in the possibility of developing a rational theory that reflects these laws. They make a distinction between objective rational truth supported by reason and subjective judgment derived from prejudice and wishful thinking. For realism, theory consists in determining facts with reason. The character of a foreign policy must therefore be discovered through the examination of political acts and their foreseeable consequences.

They develop the concept of interest in power to understand international politics. This concept provides a... Continue reading "International Relations Theory: Realism and Structural Realism" »

The Coming of International Relations

The First Great Debate

The emergence of international relations as a distinct field of study is intertwined with the rise of social sciences like economics, sociology, and political science. A group of scholars, often referred to as liberals, idealists, Wilsonians, or utopians, played a pivotal role in shaping early IR thought. They championed the establishment of international institutions, the expansion of international trade, and the practice of open diplomacy guided by experts. This belief in the power of international cooperation and institutions stemmed from their conviction that war was primarily a consequence of flawed thinking by politicians and diplomats.

These early IR thinkers argued that secrecy... Continue reading "The Rise of International Relations as a Social Science" »

Immanuel Kant (18th century)

Regarded as one of the greatest philosophers in history, he came up with a brilliant set of ideas which formed his philosophy. He made a distinction between material ethics and formal ethics. Material ethics try to change how humans are for what they ought to be using virtue as a tool for such a goal. The problem here for Kant is that humans do not usually agree on what they should be. Some humans look for happiness while others for saintliness, heroism, or pleasure. It is virtually impossible to reach a consensus on this matter. To solve this problem, Kant tries to provide a formula which he calls categorical imperative. He takes this imperative from the gospel: treat others the way you want yourself to be treated.

The first similarity is that there are actors of only one kind: the relevant actors are individuals. In both cases, they have more or less equal powers. Obviously, this is not true in terms of countries, but anyone can harm another. They are dependent on each other. In both cases, you cannot trust the behavior of others. In fear of being killed, it is either kill or be killed: the most rational action is to kill first. The fifth similarity is that good and evil come after the social contract. International politics and relations are amoral: they lack morals.

MAX WEBBER “A STATE IS A MONOPOLY OF LEGITIMATE VIOLENCE IN A GIVEN TERRITORY”

There are three different ways to contemplate the relation between morals and war. The first one would be... Continue reading "Similarities and Differences: State of Nature of Individuals and States" »

Thomas Hobbes (17th Century)

In the opinion of many scholars, Thomas Hobbes stands as one of the first great political philosophers of modern times. His cultural antecedents were the Reformation and the Renaissance, movements which, despite their differences, shared a common thread: a yearning to return to origins. The Reformation challenged established religious traditions, while the Renaissance extolled the virtues of classical philosophy. However, these movements also engendered discord, particularly concerning religious authority, leading to widespread conflict. It was an era marked by ambiguity and the absence of clear authority.

Born amidst the tumult of civil war, Hobbes's philosophical outlook was profoundly shaped by this experience.... Continue reading "Thomas Hobbes and the Social Contract" »

Truman Doctrine

The Truman Doctrine was an American foreign policy whose stated purpose was to counter Soviet geopolitical expansion during the Cold War. It was announced to Congress by President Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947, and further developed on July 12, 1948, when he pledged to contain threats in Greece and Turkey. Direct American military force was usually not involved, but Congress appropriated financial aid to support the economies and militaries of Greece and Turkey. More generally, the Truman Doctrine implied American support for other nations allegedly threatened by Soviet communism. The Truman Doctrine became the foundation of American foreign policy, and led, in 1949, to the formation of NATO, a military alliance that is still... Continue reading "Cold War Foreign Policies: Truman Doctrine, Deterrence, and Domino Theory" »

Limitations of GDP Calculation

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) calculations face several inherent limitations:

• Excludes non-market activities (e.g., domestic activities, housewives' labor, subsistence production, black market).
• Does not include depreciation of capital.
• Some market activities are included as an estimation instead of their real contribution to production (e.g., health services, police).
• Includes all production independent of its use, utility, or improvement of social welfare (i.e., defense spending).
• Does not account for negative effects like the loss of national patrimony or wealth (e.g., loss of fertile land or forests).

Free Float Exchange Rate System Analysis

A free float exchange rate system offers distinct advantages and disadvantages:... Continue reading "Economic Models, Exchange Rates, and Population Dynamics" »

The Electric Scooter Accumulates 3,000 Fines in Barcelona in 2018

The City Council and the Urban Guard warn that these vehicles are not toys, so their drivers must respect the regulations.

The increase in sanctions to electric scooter drivers, about 3,000 in 2018, has led the Barcelona City Council to redouble the information about the traffic regulations of these vehicles, which has been in force since 2017, informed this Friday Ricardo Salas, mayor of the Urban Guard. Manuel Valdés, Manager of Mobility and Infrastructure of the consistory, stressed that these vehicles are not toys and emphasized that it is important to remember the regulations to all those who have thought of buying or giving them away.

Electric scooters are prohibited from