Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Spanish

Relative Clauses

Defining vs. Non-Defining

• **Defining relative clauses** (no commas): Provide essential information to identify the noun.
• **Non-defining relative clauses** (commas): Add extra, non-essential information.

Types of Relative Clauses

• People: *who* and *that*
• Things: *which* and *that*
• Places: *where*
• Times: *when*
• Possession: *whose*

Formal vs. Informal Structure

• **Formal:** The preposition precedes the relative pronoun, and *whom* is used instead of *who*.
• **Informal:** The preposition follows the verb.

Connectors

• **Addition:** *also*, *in addition*, *as well as*, *besides*
• **Contrast:** *but*, *however*, *although*, *while*, *even though*
• **Others:** *in conclusion*, *it is important to*, *in my opinion*

Verb Tenses and Forms

• **Stative verbs**

Vocabulary

• Accent - acento
• Citizenship - nacionalidad
• Demand - exigir, requerir
• Law - ley
• Citizens - ciudadano
• Force - obligar
• Government - gobierno
• Proposal - propuesta
• Prove - demostrar
• Typical - típico
• Trendy - de moda
• Quiet - tranquilo
• Noisy - ruidoso
• Appearance - aspecto físico
• Painful - doloroso
• Hardship - problema
• Aware - consciente
• Light-skinned - piel clara
• Tease - burlarse
• Lucky break - suerte
• Pretty curly - bonito rizado
• Good looking - guapo

Text Analysis

Redefining British Culture

True or False:

1. True (lines 1-2)
2. False (lines 5-6)
3. True (lines 8, 9, 10)
4. False (lines 11)
5. False (lines 14)

Inner Beauty: Can We Really See It?

1. People sometimes judge others based on their physical appearance.
2. 1. b
   2. a
3. 1. She experienced being judged.
   2. Because of how she looked.
   3. He is able to see

Future Tenses in English Grammar

Understanding how to express future actions and predictions is crucial in English. Here's a breakdown of key future forms:

Future Continuous (Will be + -ing)

• Usage: Actions in progress at a specific time, duration, or interval in the future.
• Keywords: this time tomorrow, at 5 PM, for two hours, then.

Future Perfect (Will have + Past Participle)

• Usage: Actions completed before a specific moment in the future.
• Keywords: by this time, by then, by tomorrow, future adverb + perfect adverb.

Predictions and Certainty

Expressing predictions often involves specific verbs and adverbs:

• Verbs: think, believe, suppose, hope, know.
• Adverbs/Phrases: I'm sure, perhaps, probably, definitely.

Understanding English Modal Verbs

Modal verbs... Continue reading "English Grammar Essentials: Tenses, Modals, and Passive Voice" »

Mastering English: Time, Word Building, and Connectors

Time Vocabulary and Expressions

Verbs related to time:

• Give: dar
• Have: tener
• Kill: matar
• Make up for: compensar
• Run out of: quedarse sin
• Save: guardar
• Spare: sobrante
• Take: tomar
• Take up: absorber
• Waste: perder

Prepositions of Time:

• At: en
• Before: antes
• By: por
• For: para
• From: desde
• In: dentro de
• Off: apagado
• On: sobre
• To: a

Common Time Expressions:

• With time to spare: con tiempo de sobra
• The whole time: todo el tiempo
• Time's up: se acabó el tiempo
• Short of time: poco tiempo
• I've got time on my hands: tengo el tiempo en mis manos
• For the time being: siendo por el momento
• A question of time: una cuestión de tiempo
• A long time ago: hace mucho tiempo
• There isn't much time left: no queda mucho tiempo
• The time next week:

Introduction: hacer introducción general del tema, Ej: Some people claim/believe/say (algunas personas afirman/creen/dicen), It is sometimes said (a veces se dice) Arguments in favor: damos argumentos de lo que apoyemos (poner unos cuantos) Ej: Let me start by saying (déjame empezar diciendo), On the one hand (por un lado). Arguments against: si no es lo que defiendes poner pocos Ej: On the other hand...(por otra parte), Secondly (en segundo lugar) Conclusion: poner tu opinión Ej: In conclusión (en conclusion).EXPRESSIONS: However (sin embargo), still (todavia) though (aunque), that (que) while (mientras que) In fact (de hecho) actually (actualmente) owing to (debido a) bebidas (además). INTRODUCCIÓN: Las personas suelen estar acostumbradas

The Sophists: Masters of Rhetoric and Philosophy in Antiquity

The Sophists in Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire

The Sophists were a specific type of teacher in both Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire. Many Sophists specialized in using the tools of philosophy and rhetoric, although other Sophists taught subjects such as music, athletics, and mathematics. In general, they claimed to teach areté ("excellence" or "virtue"), predominantly to young statesmen and nobility.

The early Sophists' practice of charging money for education and providing wisdom only to those who could pay led to condemnations, notably by Socrates. Despite these criticisms, many Sophists flourished in later periods, especially during the era of Roman history known as the... Continue reading "Sophists: Teachers of Ancient Greece and Rome" »

Modal Verbs for Speculation

When you are sure something is true:

• Ex: He must be rich. He drives a Ferrari.
• He hasn't come to class. He must have fallen asleep.
• He must be sleeping.

When you are not sure something is true (50-50):

• Ex: He hasn't come to class. He might/may/could be ill.
• He hasn't passed the exam. He may/might not have studied very much (do not use 'could' in negatives).

When you are sure something is not true:

• Ex: He can't be Spanish. He only speaks English.
• He got a 0 in the exam. He can't/couldn't have studied very much.

'Should' for Expectations:

• Ex: The classes aren't complicated this year. The exam SHOULD BE quite easy.

Inversion

• Not only is my brother lazy, but he's also very selfish.
• Not until you can behave like an adult will we treat

English Language Essentials

Key Vocabulary for Global Issues

• War (guerra)
• Peace (paz)
• Terrorism (terrorismo)
• Immigration (inmigración)
• Famine (hambruna)
• Malnutrition (malnutrición)
• Poverty (pobreza)
• Racism (racismo)
• Pollution (contaminación)
• The environment (el medio ambiente)
• Disease (enfermedad)
• Illiteracy (analfabetismo)

Mastering the Verb 'Get'

• Get fatter: become
• Get home: arrive
• Get presents: receive
• Get a medal: obtain
• Get a sandwich: buy
• Get someone a glass of water: bring

Useful Expressions for English Dialogue

• So do I/Neither do I (Yo también/yo tampoco)
• I suppose so (Supongo que sí)
• Do you think so? (Usted cree?)
• I agree/I don't agree (Estoy de acuerdo/No estoy de acuerdo)
• I'm not sure. Maybe you're right. (No estoy seguro, quizás tengas razón).

Core

Conditionals

Understanding and correctly using conditional sentences is crucial for clear communication in English. Here's a breakdown:

• Zero Conditional: If + present simple, present simple. (Used for general truths or facts)
• First Conditional: If + present simple, will + infinitive. (Used for real or likely future possibilities)
• Second Conditional: If + past simple, would + infinitive. (Used for hypothetical or unlikely situations)
• Third Conditional: If + past perfect, would have + past participle. (Used for unreal past situations and their hypothetical results)

Mixed Conditionals (less common, combining different types):

• If + past perfect, would + infinitive (Example: If I had studied harder, I would be a doctor now.)
• If + past simple, would have