Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

A Historical Background of Administration

Administration is an activity inherent in any social group. It is the coordinated effort of a social group to achieve a goal with the greatest efficiency and the least possible effort.

Primitive Era

In the primitive era, administration was carried out by the workgroup itself.

Agricultural Era

This period was characterized by the development of agriculture and a sedentary lifestyle, where a division of labor based on age and sex prevailed. Population growth also required people to coordinate their efforts within the social group. With the appearance of the state, science, literature, and religion arose. The Code of Hammurabi illustrates the high degree of development in ancient Babylon.

Greco-Roman Antiquity

This... Continue reading "The Evolution and Core Concepts of Administration" »

Business Ethics and Organizational Values

Business ethics defines what an organization should or should not do. It encompasses the principles and values governing the behavior of business organizations.

Types of Ethics Classes

• Descriptive Ethics: Focuses on identifying and understanding the conduct of individuals and their moral beliefs.
• Normative Ethics: Addresses what may or may not be permissible within an organization, setting standards for behavior.

Beyond Minimum Legal Requirements

A broader reflection on business ethics involves practices that implicate the norms and values of individuals and society. Ethics often goes beyond minimum legal requirements, encouraging actions that benefit more than just self-interest.

Ethical Charters

Ethical charters... Continue reading "Company Values, Business Ethics, and Organizational Culture Dynamics" »

Textual Units

A verbal text is a unit because we use words, but it also constitutes a semantic unit because it makes sense, and a communication unit because it appears in a particular communicative situation. A text must adhere to three fundamental principles:

Suitability

The text must correspond to the communicative situation. For example, a student greets a director with "Good morning, sir," not "*Che, como va?*"

Coherence

Organize different parts of the text's meaning. A text is coherent if it has a central idea, is properly organized, and answers the text as a whole. Elements that show no coherent organization of texts include titles and captions. Lastly, the issue should be closed with conclusions.

Cohesion

Establish the relationship between... Continue reading "Textual Cohesion and Coherence: Principles and Mechanisms" »

Kant and Marx: Shared Philosophical Ground

Immanuel Kant and Karl Marx share a dialectical view of history. For both thinkers, history progresses through various stages, and some may even seem to be a denial of previous progress, or even a setback in historical development. However, measured with sufficient perspective, it appears as a stage in the unfolding of human potential. In this sense, Kant would be a precedent not only for Marx but also, as mentioned, for Hegel.

A Positive Assessment of Conflict

One consequence is that Kant and Marx also share a positive assessment of conflict. For Marx, this is reflected in the concept of class struggle. Kant also admits that conflict and antagonism are what drive history forward, suggesting that even... Continue reading "Kant and Marx: Philosophical Parallels and Divergences" »

The Impact of Technology Today

Technology has a significant impact on productive activity, social aspects, and other repercussions.

Definition of Technology

Historically, philosophies and scientists dedicated to the natural world developed practices that were often isolated and disconnected from practical application. This changed with the emergence of modern science. Galileo was among the first to carry out his investigations hand-in-hand with technique. He built a telescope and employed it to study the stars and confirm his theory of the universe. Thereafter, the relationship between technology and science has been increasingly close.

For technique, this has been a profound transformation. We can define technology as the set of procedures and... Continue reading "Technology's Influence on Modern Society" »

Rousseau's Core Ideas: Nature, Morality, and Policy

The fundamental concept of anthropological theory, morality, and policy, as outlined in Rousseau's Discourse on the Sciences and Arts and Discourse on the Origin of Inequality Among Men, centers on the inherent goodness of human nature and the corrupting influence of society. Evil, according to Rousseau, originates from social structures.

To develop this theory, Rousseau needed a working hypothesis: a theoretical assumption about human life before the establishment of social status, the state of nature. In contrast to Hobbes, Rousseau envisioned humans in this state as good, free, and happy, with inherent equality. The natural man possesses two dominant, basic feelings: self-love and natural... Continue reading "Rousseau's Philosophy: Human Nature, Society, and the General Will" »

Group Operations: Concrete

1. Formation of a Hierarchy of Classes

• a) 7-8 years: Can include classes.
• b) 8-9 years: Can classify to represent flowers in clusters. For example: What will a large branch be? If you cut all the flowers in the garden, would any remain? Can a daisy be in the "Flowers" category without changing the sign? If you take all the daisies from the box, would any flowers remain?
• c) They have difficulty in representing objects that involve mental representation. For example: If all animals died, would any birds remain? If all animals die, would some animals remain? Can these two cells be under the same sign? Children cannot respond to these problems until 10 or 12 years of age.
• d) In the absence of specific references, Piaget found

Literature of the Baroque: Lyric Theater

1. The Baroque Era: A Century of Crises and Conflicts

The 17th century, known as the Baroque period, was a time of widespread crisis—economic, demographic, political, social, and military. The Spanish Empire experienced a significant decline.

2. Baroque Ideology, Beliefs, and Thought

Religion permeated Baroque thinking. This religion, based on the Counter-Reformation, was deeply intolerant and controlling (Inquisition).

The Baroque worldview was pessimistic and disillusioned, reflecting a sense of crisis, the passage of time, and the brevity of life.

Religious beliefs intertwined with magical beliefs about the supernatural world (spirits, miracles, superstitions, etc.).

Concepts of honor, revenge, and violence... Continue reading "Spanish Baroque Literature: A Deep Dive" »

Greek Architecture: Principles and Harmony

Greek architecture is fundamentally based on *order* and *reason*, achieving great harmony through a synthesis of concept, proportion, and measure. Buildings were always adapted to the scale of man. These features were aimed at the pursuit of beauty and balance. To achieve these objectives, architects employed numerous practical optical illusions.

Types of Greek Architecture

Religious Architecture: The Temple

The temple was the most prominent religious building, housing the divine image in its interior. Temples are typically rectangular and consist of three main parts:

• Pronaos: The entrance vestibule leading to the sanctum (naos/cella).
• Cella (Naos): The main space where the divine image or statue was kept.

Political Liberalism: 18th-19th Century Foundations

Political philosophy associated with fundamental principles that laid the foundation for modern liberties of the 19th century and the evolution towards democracy. It distinguished the 'political' from the 'economic' (especially concerning wealth expressed as money).

Core Principles of Political Liberalism

• Freedom of the individual
• Civil liberties
• Representative constitutional government
• Parliamentarism

Initially revolutionary and progressive, political liberalism fought against feudal aristocracy, absolute monarchy, and church doctrine.

Economic Liberalism: Principles and Challenges

Economic liberalism brought significant shifts in societal values and economic practices:

• Change in the perception of