Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Understanding Society: Individuals, Groups, and Sociology

The Individual

• The individual is the smallest unit that makes up society, serving as the primary subject of sociological study. They are considered the irreducible social mass.

Society

• A society is a human group characterized by a degree of unity and independence from others. It often occupies a stable space, possesses continuity over time that exceeds its members' lifespans, and shares a common culture that provides cohesion.

Sociology

• Sociology is the science dedicated to studying both society and the individuals who compose it. It aims to critically analyze and understand societal structures and dynamics.

Agents of Socialization and Their Societal Impact

Key Socializing Agents

• The Family:

African Decolonization and Independence

The territory changed its name to Zaire in 1971. Special cases included the independence of the Republic of South Africa (1961) and Rhodesia (1965). In Rhodesia, the white minority, which already held control, unilaterally declared independence and continued practicing apartheid against the black population.

The last colonies of consequence to achieve independence were the Portuguese territories of Angola and Mozambique (1975). They gained sovereignty after the dictatorship fell in the metropolis, following the "Carnation Revolution."

The Middle East: Mandates and Sovereignty

Most Middle Eastern countries belonged to the Turkish Empire. After World War I, following its dismemberment, these regions became... Continue reading "Decolonization and the Evolution of the Middle East" »

Astronomy and cosmology are fields of science and knowledge that study the cosmos and the universe. Cosmology, in particular, is part of theoretical physics and investigates the origin, nature, and evolution of the universe.

Prehistoric Sky Observation

Cosmology was observed for the first time in prehistory, reflecting humanity's early interest in observing the sky during prehistoric epochs.

The development of calendars, linked to tracking animal migrations and agricultural cycles, provides evidence of systematic attempts to determine the position and movements of the Sun and the Moon.

Stonehenge demonstrates the study of the universe in order to try to determine with maximum precision the position of the Sun during the summer and winter solstices.... Continue reading "History of Astronomy and Early Cosmology" »

Dialectical Materialism

Materialism is the latest theory that matches directly across the entire universe. L.Q. reduces or is subject to step H. Feuerbach was thought to be a materialist, but his mistake was permanence. N1M. Materialism can be divided into two types:

• Mechanistic Materialism
• Dialectical Materialism

In dialectical materialism, nature develops, stating that it is reaching its historical level or height of man. Take care that S1 + people are not an echo, but man is one with his work, so his work is the same as the essence. No matter which subject, its dynamic mobility is producing, evolving, and developing all through dialectical movement. This movement is the thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. This is the same contribution as Hegel'... Continue reading "Dialectical and Historical Materialism: A Marxist View" »

19th Century: Southern Basque Writers and Cultural Revival

Introduction: A Century of Transformation

Unlike the North, the Basque Country in the nineteenth century experienced significant upheaval. The final Carlist Wars were a major factor, leading to the abolition of the fueros (charters). These incidents had profound political and social consequences, yet they also spurred a movement to promote the recovery of the Basque language and culture within the century's intellectual arena. The Industrial Revolution, driven by a new economic framework, also fostered a national market. Modern influences reached Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa, primarily through factories and new media, gradually spreading among the population and leading to the formation of workers'... Continue reading "19th Century Basque Literary Revival: Southern Writers & Cultural Heritage" »

Otto von Bismarck and European Diplomacy (1871-1890)

Otto von Bismarck: After the unification of Germany, Bismarck organized the international relations of Europe aimed at isolating France. He unfolded a system of alliances based on secret diplomacy (Germany and Austria-Hungary) and its eventual failure.

The Second Industrial Revolution (1870)

The Second Industrial Revolution was a new industrial transformation involving technical and organizational changes in work.

Fordism and Scientific Management

• Fordism: Henry Ford (car manufacturer) introduced series production in huge factories. All phases of a product's elaboration were integrated, and workers specialized in specific tasks.
• Scientific Management: Frederick Taylor studied how to save time at

Government: The organs of the state, comprising the executive (president, vice presidents, ministers, and other comparable bodies). Voting rules include: 1) Majority rule—the party with the most votes forms the government; other policy options are excluded. These governments tend to be more stable. 2) Proportional representation—the government is formed according to each party's vote share, often requiring coalitions.

Parliament and Political Parties: Three ways to influence government decisions:

• As a legislative body, preparing, discussing, and approving laws.
• Controlling the executive branch's actions.
• Using parliamentary debates to shape public opinion on economic policy (note that some economic policy instruments, due to the element of

The Amejoramiento of Navarra (1982)

Source and Nature

Source: Primary; Nature: Political-legal; Status: Public.

The Amejoramiento (Improvement) is the final text approved by the Spanish government, the Courts of Spain, and the Council and Parliament of Navarra. It was enacted in August 1982, during the period when Spain was establishing different statutes of autonomy stemming from the 1978 Constitution. This Act contains a series of articles defining Navarra's status and powers.

• Article 1 defines Navarra.
• Article 3 sets out the objectives.
• Article 6 states that the rights and duties of Navarre are equivalent to those of the rest of Spain.
• Article 9 addresses the official languages.
• Article 10 names the provincial institutions.
• Article 11 addresses

The Rise of Regional Nationalisms in Spain

Catalan Political Nationalism

Catalan political nationalism emerged during a six-year period, advocating for democratic federalism and an integrated Catalonia within a Spanish federal state. The Catalan union sought to unify various trends around the nationalist bourgeoisie. This movement was notably illustrated and promoted by the conservative Manresa Bases of 1892, a foundational document that outlined the first program explicitly including a conservative Catalan statute. However, it wasn't until 1901 that Catalonia's first political party, the Regionalist League, was formed.

Basque Political Nationalism

Basque political nationalism defended lost historical rights and vehemently rejected the industrialization... Continue reading "Spain's Regional Nationalisms: Catalan and Basque Origins" »

The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856)

During the Progressive Biennium (1854-1856), progressive governments attempted to implement genuinely liberal measures that had been suspended since 1844. Key reforms included:

• Restoration of military service.
• Implementation of progressive municipal laws, allowing mayors to be elected by residents.
• Restoration of freedom of the press.

The Non-Enacted Constitution of 1856

The starting point was the development of a new constitution. The text remained a project, similar to the 1837 Constitution, as the Constitution of 1856 was never enacted (the non-nata Constitution). It included progressive ideological pillars:

• Bicameral National Sovereignty, with both houses elected.
• Shared legislative power between the Crown and