Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Science Concept and Main Features

Science is defined by various thinkers:

• Ander-Egg: "sound body of knowledge, certain or probable, obtained methodically, systematic and verifiable, and that refer to objects of the same nature"
• Bunge: "rational, systematic, accurate, verifiable and fallible"
• Ferrari: "is the set of rational attitudes and activities aimed at systematic knowledge with limited items, can be subjected to verification"

Science is characterized by:

• Its content: a trait that defines it is its conceptual or theoretical nature. Science, as a form of knowledge, provides concepts through scientific theories, using them to classify, explain, and analyze empirical phenomena.
• Its principles relate to events or facts of reality that can be accessed

11 .- In the various working groups is a process of psychological accommodation forms and systems of work to produce a reaction against the innovations, because every system has a tendency to stay in balance.

-Causes: habits created, fear of the unknown, comfort.

-Consequences: indifference and lack of collaboration projects discourage, anticipation of possible negative effects, an emphasis on positive aspects of obstacles that are the consequence of errors.

- Pattern: consider the recipients, well defined objectives, avoid unnecessary changes, highlight advantages in contrast, accept criticism and fix flaws.

12 .- worker attitudes to the changes: flexible (not rigid), openness to change (not close), always positive, creative, minimize fear,... Continue reading "Emotional intelligence capabilities" »

The Concept of Democracy

Democracy is a form of organizing groups of people, characterized by the principle that the ownership of power resides in all its members. Decisions are made to reflect the collective will of the group.

Strictly speaking, democracy is a form of government—the organization of the state—in which collective decisions are taken by the people through participatory mechanisms that directly or indirectly confer legitimacy to representatives. Broadly speaking, democracy is a form of social interaction in which members are free and equal, and social relations are established according to agreed-upon mechanisms (contractual relations).

Classical Classification of Government Forms

Democracy is also defined from the classical classification... Continue reading "Fundamentals of Democracy: Types and Structures" »

Urban Planning and Land Management

A Technical Administrator is needed to carry out the plans, project implementation, and expropriation, requiring new administrative institutions with the power to change land ownership structures.

This arises partly because developer actions, whether public or private, generate profits on new farms. The intent is to balance the burdens and benefits of this action.

In short, public institutions regulate and ensure that the urbanization process results in housing with ideal conditions, now known as quality of life. The approach management techniques of the new administrative tools depend on the plan's intended use. Land may be expropriated as inherent, redistributed among owners, or equitably distributed among... Continue reading "Urban Planning: Expropriation, Land Management, and Quality of Life" »

History of Athenian Democracy

In 508 BC, a significant change in institutions occurred, integrating the people within new democratic structures. His reforms can be divided into two areas: one involved a reorganization of the civic body, and the other a new institutional sort. Regarding the new organization of power, a council of five hundred members (the Boule) was created, which exercised control over the judges and played an important judicial role. Around 440 BC, democratic institutions took their definitive form. Procedures were elaborated for meetings of the Boule and Ekklesia, and specialized magistrate bodies were organized. Its restoration in 280 BC, however, was but a pale reflection of its previous political life.

Political Institutions

Election Expenses and Subsidies: Campaign Finance Regulations

Campaign Administrators and Appointments

General representatives of parties, federations, or coalitions contesting elections must register with the Electoral Board. They are responsible for designating a general manager and representatives for each candidacy with the appropriate Board. Any adult citizen in full possession of their civil and political rights may be appointed to these roles, except those facing a final judicial decision.

Campaign Fund Accounts and Transparency

Administrators are authorized to open accounts for fundraising from the date of their appointment in any bank or savings bank. The details of these accounts must be communicated within 24 hours to the relevant Electoral... Continue reading "Election Campaign Finance: Rules for Spending and Subsidies" »

The European Central Bank and Monetary Policy

Institutional Organization

• The European Central Bank (ECB) and the European System of Central Banks (ESCB) were created on January 1, 1998, under the Treaty establishing the European Community and the Statute annexed to the Treaty.
• The ESCB comprises the ECB and the national central banks (NCBs) of all Member States of the European Union (EU).
• The NCBs of EU members that have not adopted the euro are part of the ESCB but do not participate in making monetary policy decisions regarding the euro area or in the execution of those decisions.
• For this reason, the term "Eurosystem" has been adopted to describe the mechanism by which the ECB and the NCBs of participating Member States play the roles of the

Definitions

• State: The political and higher administrative unit governing a territory, to whose authority all inhabitants are subject.
• Dictatorship: A system where all state powers are concentrated in the hands of a person or group, such as the military, religious leaders, or a political party.

Types of States

Secular States

There is a total separation between the state and religion. Laws are not based on any religious doctrine, and citizens may profess the religion of their choice or none at all.

Theocracy

There is an official religion, and sacred books serve as religious law. Religious leaders occupy the government or have the authority to decide on policies; all other religions are banned.

Monarchies

States in which the head of state is a king who... Continue reading "Understanding Political Systems and State Structures" »

Understanding the Text

A text consists of a sequence of words or phrases that convey a complete message; it is considered a communicative act. Its length has a precise limit, and within it, other smaller units are included, such as paragraphs and sentences. Each type of text has a specific organization. For example, a novel is divided into chapters, paragraphs, and sentences, while a poem is structured into stanzas and lines.

Key Properties of a Text

For a text to make complete sense, it must possess certain properties. The text has to adapt to the circumstances of the communicative situation in which it is produced.

Adequacy

Adequacy is the property of choosing the appropriate language for each situation, ensuring there is a correspondence between... Continue reading "Text Properties, Language Status, and Spanish Linguistics" »