Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Unit 5 — Globalization and Diversity in the World

Global Village

Global village: The term refers to the idea that, because of the speed of communications, all of human society begins to change its lifestyle and becomes similar to that of a village. Due to technological progress, all the inhabitants of the planet begin to know each other and to communicate instantly and directly. This profound connection between all regions of the world creates a powerful network of mutual dependencies and thus promotes both solidarity and the struggle for the same ideals, for example in ecology and economy in pursuit of sustainable development on Earth. The term global village was possibly coined by the Canadian sociologist Marshall McLuhan as an expression... Continue reading "Globalization and Diversity: Key Concepts and Impacts" »

The Fundamentals of the State

The State represents the political and administrative unity governing a specific territory, exercising supreme authority over all its inhabitants.

Essential Elements of a State

• Territory and Boundaries

  The territory is defined by boundaries that distinguish it from other states. This geographical area is where the State exercises its sovereignty.

• Population and Citizenship

  The population living within the territory consists of citizens. Citizens possess recognized rights that the State must respect, but they also have corresponding duties.

• State Power and Authority

  To regulate the territory and population, the State dictates a set of laws that must be obeyed. Furthermore, the State maintains institutions necessary for

Vocabulary: Global Concepts

Global

Occurring or given on the scale of the entire globe.

Postindustrial

A type of society based less on manufacturing output and more on the production of services and knowledge.

Informational

A kind of post-industrial society where activities are organized through modern means of information processing.

Modernization

The transformation of a traditional society into a modern, technologically developed one with a high level of material welfare.

Transnational Corporations

Companies that develop their productive activities in several countries and seek to sell their goods and services in the global market.

Liberalization

The reduction of government controls on economic activity, allowing it to move within a framework of free... Continue reading "Key Global Development Terms Explained" »

Treaties, Declarations, and Supranational Organizations

The Relations Between States

States are held in constant relationship concerning various international problems. Many issues similarly affect a large number of countries, and only through coordinated solutions can they be resolved.

• We have signed treaties, conventions, and international declarations of rights through which states commit to performing certain actions or avoiding others.
• International and supranational organizations are created, to which states delegate certain functions.

Treaties, Agreements, and Declarations of International Law

There are numerous international treaties and conventions signed by states on the most diverse subjects, such as arms control.

There are also various... Continue reading "International Treaties, Organizations, and State Relations" »

The French Revolution: Origins and Political Shifts

The Estates General and the Third Estate

The French National Assembly traces its roots to the meeting of the Estates General on 5 May 1789 at Versailles, chaired by King Louis XVI. Traditionally, each estate deliberated separately and cast a single vote. The privileged classes (First and Second Estates) consistently imposed their views, holding two votes against the single vote of the Third Estate, which represented the vast majority of the French population.

The dispute over voting procedures triggered an institutional revolt. The Third Estate proclaimed itself the National Assembly, asserting its exclusive right to make policy decisions and vote on taxes.

The Tennis Court Oath and Constituent

The Essay: Definition and Characteristics

The essay is a prose text of variable length, addressing diverse themes with a reflective character. It has several characteristics, such as the use of exposition and argumentation within textual modalities. The reflection is subjective, presenting the author's perspective to persuade the reader, often with a dialogical character. Its structure is open, organized with freedom, and may include heterogeneous fragments. It typically employs a standard language style, sometimes including colloquial voices and idioms, with few technical terms.

Fin de Siècle Spanish Writers (Generation of '98)

Following the crisis of social consciousness and values after 1898, authors sought a national cultural identity, focusing... Continue reading "Spanish Literature: Unamuno, Ortega y Gasset & Movements" »

Language and Languages

Language and languages can be synonymous in certain contexts but can also be distinguished by examining the words very precisely:

• Language: The ability to communicate through words.
• Language: Specific words used to communicate.

There are languages where there are signs or symbols. Their meaning must signify something: The words of a language are what is common to all languages. Human language is the ability to communicate. We all have the capacity for language, and all have the same capacity, but everything to do with a language we know is our own. Language is materialized by language.

• Language: Communication system; human power.
• Languages: Lesser, concrete materializations.

Human beings are fundamentally linguistic, endowed... Continue reading "Understanding Language: Characteristics, Linguistics, and Human Communication" »

The End of the Convention and the Directory

The coup of Thermidor (July 1794) caused the fall of Robespierre. The Jacobin leader was executed, and moderates were in power again. The period during which they presided over the assembly is known as the Thermidorian Convention.

A new Constitution (1795) divided legislative power between two chambers, and the executive branch fell to the Directory, a body of five members. During this period, a harsh repression of radicals known as the White Terror took place.

To maintain public order, the Directory relied increasingly on the army. In addition, defensive war had given way to an offensive phase, in which French troops obtained great victories over the coalitions organized by European monarchs.

Faced with... Continue reading "The Rise of Napoleon and the French Directory" »

The Commonwealth of Catalonia: Formation and Challenges

In Madrid, there were differing opinions regarding the Commonwealth of Catalonia. The Conservative party was opposed, and even within the ruling Liberal party, opinions were divided. Some saw it favorably, while others did not. President José Canalejas agreed to the Commonwealth and committed to the Catalan cause. Unfortunately, Canalejas was assassinated before he could pursue this agreement, and the project was stalled. It was not until the following year, 1913, that the Conservative government of Eduardo Dato finally allowed the Catalan Commonwealth. The Commonwealth was established in April 1914.

The Constitution of the Commonwealth

The first president of the Commonwealth was Enric Prat

The Political System of the Spanish Restoration

Cánovas del Castillo was the main leader of the party during the Sexenio Democrático (Six Democratic Years) who had defended the monarchical restoration. After the return of Alfonso XII, the Conservative Party became the primary political force, with the exception of the Carlists and Integrists. Cánovas's bipartisan draft required another party of a more progressive, left-leaning dynastic nature, which was proposed under Sagasta.

The Formation of the Dynastic Parties

From an agreement between progressives, unionists, and some moderate Republicans, the Liberal Party was born. Both parties performed the corresponding task of uniting various groups and factions, with the unique requirement of accepting... Continue reading "The Spanish Restoration: Cánovas, Sagasta, and Dynastic Power" »