The Rise of Napoleon and the French Directory

The End of the Convention and the Directory

The coup of Thermidor (July 1794) caused the fall of Robespierre. The Jacobin leader was executed, and moderates were in power again. The period during which they presided over the assembly is known as the Thermidorian Convention.

A new Constitution (1795) divided legislative power between two chambers, and the executive branch fell to the Directory, a body of five members. During this period, a harsh repression of radicals known as the White Terror took place.

To maintain public order, the Directory relied increasingly on the army. In addition, defensive war had given way to an offensive phase, in which French troops obtained great victories over the coalitions organized by European monarchs.

Faced with professional politicians who had become unpopular due to constant financial scandals and corruption cases, military leaders enjoyed a popularity greater than ever. They included the young general who gained prestige in the Italian campaigns and the expedition to Egypt. His name was Napoleon Bonaparte, and many in France saw him as a guarantee of peace and order.

Napoleon Bonaparte and the Consulate

On 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799), Napoleon staged a coup that ended the Directory. Along with Sieyès and Ducos, he formed a Consulate to rule France, avoiding a collective dictatorship like Robespierre's. However, the power was concentrated, focusing on Napoleon, who utilized the desire for stability among many French citizens tired of revolutionary excesses. From First Consul, he became Consul for life and, finally, in 1804, he proclaimed himself Emperor.

Napoleonic France and Institutionalization

The government of Napoleon in France had a double significance. On one hand, it put an end to the revolution itself through institutionalization:

• Restored order: He organized police action to prevent public disorder. He also stabilized centralized finance and administration. In addition, he restored relations with the Catholic Church by signing a Concordat with the Holy See.
• Created a new institutional order: This replaced the Old Regime's legislation. The Napoleonic Code compiled laws that were to be equal for all citizens.
• Established the principle of careers open to talent: The bourgeoisie was able to assume the highest ranks of the nation according to their ability, even creating a new nobility that did not belong by birth but was based on merit.