Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

Basic Characteristics of Business Administration Schools of Thought

The three main administrative schools of thought are: The Classical School (Traditional or Customary), the Psycho-Sociological School (Human Relations and Human Behavior), and the Systems School.

School: Classic or Custom

This school is also called the classical or traditional school. It suggests that administrative tasks should be considered and implemented as they were in the recent past, guided by custom or tradition. Many current managers practice this, and often the results are favorable.

Its primary use is to maintain the status quo, meaning things continue in the same way as always within the company's management. Managers who follow this school believe it's the safest path... Continue reading "Classical School of Business Administration: Principles and Practices" »

Ancient Astronomical Observations

Early astronomers peered into the sky month by month, as part of a religious ritual. They noted that certain stars appear just before the sun and disappear immediately after it. These observations were repeated over the years, with meticulous measurements and annotations of the times and positions these phenomena occurred in the sky. This led to the conclusion that these cycles were repeated cyclically with each season. The sky, in essence, provided a large celestial schedule that allowed them to predict seasons favorable for hunting and navigation.

For the Egyptians, when the star Sirius appeared above the horizon before dawn, it signaled the approach of the planting season. The Babylonians, meanwhile, developed... Continue reading "Cosmic Chronicles: A Journey Through Astronomical Discoveries" »

Power and Politics

Politics is an activity by which people are socially organized, creating and modifying rules of coexistence that seek common objectives for all members of the community. Therefore, politics seeks to understand the ideal of life.

The Concept of Power

Power is the ability to change the behavior of others to impose one's will, even against their resistance. This influence can be exercised because it makes those who obey under threat or has been manipulated.

Levels of Power

• Firstly, power is the individual capacity or the strength we need to act. This is in order to make something.
• Secondly, at the interpersonal level: Power is the ability of someone to change the behavior of another person.

Power can be understood as a tactic or strategy... Continue reading "Understanding Power and Politics in Society" »

Spanish Enlightenment: Context and Characteristics

The spread of Enlightenment ideas in Spain was relatively slow and late, although it presented essentially the same features as elsewhere in Europe. Enlightened thinkers (ilustrados) were always a small minority among the Spanish population, and their actions were often more theoretical than practical. Despite this, they drew attention to significant problems. They cannot be blamed for the absence of a powerful bourgeoisie capable of adopting their ideas.

Characteristic Features of Spanish Enlightenment

The characteristic features of this ideology include:

• Employment of reason and criticism as a method for analyzing and improving social reality.
• Promotion of the national economy, seen as necessary

Understanding Materialism

Materialism refers to a set of theories that, throughout the history of thought, have argued for a fundamental principle: "there is only matter" or that "everything is reducible to matter." Since the concept of matter has varied over time and has not always been clearly defined, various kinds of philosophical materialism have emerged.

Materialism in Ancient Greek Philosophy

In ancient Greek philosophy, different manifestations of this philosophical trend are evident. Classical ancient atomism, embodied by Leucippus and Democritus, posited that there are only atoms and void. All of nature and the changes that take place can be explained by random shocks occurring between these indivisible, smallest units of matter, which... Continue reading "The Philosophical Journey of Materialism" »

Understanding Citizenship

Dimensions of Citizenship

Citizenship defines the relationship between citizens and the state. It expresses the defining characteristics of membership in the political community, involving rights (which the state must recognize, guarantee, and protect) and duties of citizens.

Cultural Identity and Citizenship

Cultural identity offers individuals a way to be recognized as belonging to that culture. The cultural dimension views citizens as members of differentiated groups within a state, raising the issue of minority rights.

Integrating Political and Cultural Aspects

The union of political and cultural aspects must maintain this distinction, as it is essential for a thorough comprehension of the modern democratic state of... Continue reading "Citizenship and State Power Legitimacy" »

Foundations of Legal Discourse Theory

The primary objective of discourse theory is to identify the viewpoints and arguments from which issues can be considered. The direct adoption of these arguments and views is often associated with specific places or topics.

Medieval Legal Dialectics and System Integration

Medieval legal thought employed dialectical processes and methods, often derived from topography, to discover arguments. A monumental achievement of legal thought during this era was the integration of diverse legal traditions into a single system. These traditions included:

• Roman Law
• Canon Law
• Feudal Law
• Municipal Law

Each of these legal systems possessed its own distinct viewpoints and sources of legitimacy; their orders were often contradictory... Continue reading "Legal Thought Evolution: From Medieval Dialectics to Modern Systems" »

Article 18: Defining the Coexistence Plan

The Coexistence Plan is part of the School Educational Project (PEC), a document reflecting the center's identity and ideology. It outlines the school's purpose, organizational structure, and educational vision.

The Coexistence Plan details principles, objectives, and actions to enhance school life, focusing on:

• Coexistence among peers
• Educator-learner relationships
• Intercultural coexistence
• Coexistence in gender differences

Plan Elements

• Center characteristics
• Current state of coexistence
• Objectives and actions for achievement
• Operational procedures for coexistence
• Dissemination mechanisms
• Annual review and improvement proposals

Article 1Y 4: Scope and Purpose

This article aims to regulate school life and define... Continue reading "School Coexistence Plan: Principles and Implementation" »

Understanding Linguistic Variation

Speakers of the same language do not all express themselves the same way. Various factors, including spatial/geographic, social, and generational influences, cause significant variety in the use of a common language.

Dialects

Dialects are associated with the users, i.e., individuals or groups of people who speak a language. Varieties include:

• Historical varieties: These develop over time.
• Spatial or geographical varieties: These relate speakers to their territorial origin.
• Social varieties: These are defined by the social groups that use them.

Variety of Style

These variations are associated with specific communicative situations and uses, such as formal, colloquial, or vulgar registers.

Standard Variety

Over time,... Continue reading "Understanding Linguistic Variation and Dialects" »

Individual and Society: Relationships and Integration

Dynamics of Social Relationships

Relationships between individuals and society can be categorized into two main types:

• Negative Relationships: Characterized by exclusion, manifesting as attitudes of rejection from society towards individuals, or self-exclusion when individuals reject society.
• Positive Relationships: Built on harmony and expressed through the integration of individuals within society.

Understanding Exclusionary Relationships

Exclusionary relationships arise when one party rejects another. If society rejects an individual, exclusion occurs. Conversely, if an individual rejects society, it leads to self-exclusion.

Addressing Social Prejudice

Social prejudice manifests in various discriminatory... Continue reading "Fostering Social Harmony: Individual Growth & Community Engagement" »