Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

UNIT 8: Text: Adequacy, Coherence, and Cohesion.

1. Text and Sentence:

"Statement: This is the minimum unit of communication, the minimum message. Features:

• Goes between long pauses (points).
• It has a single pitch.
• Is the full meaning unit.

There are 2 types: phrases (no verb) and sentences (verb conjugated).

-Text: A coherent set of statements.

Features:

• Is the maximum communication unit.
• It is composed of statements.
• Must be adequate.
• Must be consistent and well-knit.

Types of Text:

1. Narrative: feature story.
2. Description: discover something or someone.
3. Exhibition: tell us something.
4. Argumentative: try to convince.
5. Dialogue: maintained between 2 or more partners.

2. The Adequacy of the Text:

The adequacy of the text is the property that meets or does not violate... Continue reading "Understanding Text Adequacy, Coherence, and Cohesion" »

Semantic Relationships

Semantic relationships are relationships that develop between the words, given the signifier and signified.

Synonymy

Synonymy occurs if two or more signifiers correspond to the same meaning.

• Total synonymy: Occurs when two or more words are interchangeable in all contexts.
• Partial synonymy: When two or more terms have the same meaning, but there are nuances among them.

Antonymy

Antonymy is the oppositional relationship of meaning between two or more terms. There are three types:

• Gradual words: There is a word in between (e.g., expensive-cheap, affordable exists).
• Complementary words: The meaning of one term excludes the meaning of another (e.g., approved-failed).
• Reciprocal words: The meaning of one term implies the existence of

European Parliament: Role, Structure, and Functions

Directly elected by EU voters every five years, Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) represent the citizens of the European Union. The Parliament stands as one of the EU’s primary law-making institutions, working in conjunction with the Council of the European Union.

Key Roles of the European Parliament

• Debating and passing European laws, in cooperation with the Council.
• Scrutinizing other EU institutions, particularly the European Commission, to ensure democratic accountability.
• Debating and adopting the EU's annual budget, alongside the Council.

Passing European Laws

The Parliament collaborates with the Council to determine the content of EU legislation and officially adopt new laws.

Democratic

Development of Social and Labor Policies

Introduction: This document analyzes the political and institutional issues affecting the development of social and labor policies (SLP). The development of SLP follows the same process as any other economic policy. In this process, the State, as a political decision-maker (policy-maker), must continually set priorities and choose between different, often conflicting, alternatives. Throughout the process of economic and social action, many actors are concerned with or affected by these policies. This process may vary with the ideology or the type of government. However, whatever the form of government and decision-making mechanism, policy-making always has a few stages and some key actors.

Overview of

**T8 Group: Defining Characteristics**

Identity, interdependence, interaction (structure), and common objectives.

**Other Characteristics**

• Climate
• Cohesion
• Communication
• Standards
• Values

**Structure**

Set in roles, status (derived from specific features and diffuse), and communication networks (set of rules that establish whether and how the exchange of information occurs).

**Working Groups and Group Performance**

**Factors Influencing Group Performance**

**Type of Task (Steiner)**

**Criteria**

• Divisible or unitary
• Optimizing or maximizing individual and group contributions

**Types**

• Additive: Sum of individual contributions
• Compensatory: Average of individual contributions
• Disjunctive: Product of each individual's contribution
• Joint Discretionary: The group

The Cortes of Cádiz and the Constitution of 1812

The Central Board prepared the process for calling the Cortes, setting up committees that collected information on the country's situation. When power was transferred to the Regency Council, the process continued according to liberal principles: the Cortes would be unicameral, representing the nation rather than traditional estates, and their primary goal was to draft a constitution.

Representatives of the nation were invited to an extraordinary session of the Cortes in Cádiz, a city free of French occupation. Deputies were chosen by provincial boards or attended as substitutes due to the difficulty of travel during the war.

Composition and Political Factions of the Cortes

The deputies met in a... Continue reading "The Cortes of Cádiz and Spain's First Constitution (1812)" »

Unit 2: The Spanish Constitution - Parts IV to X

2.1 Title IV: Government and Public Administration

Function of the Government

The Government is the body that directs domestic and foreign policy, civil and military administration, and the defense of the state. It exercises executive and statutory authority under the Constitution and laws.

Composition of the Government

The Government consists of the President, one or more Vice Presidents, Ministers, and other members established by law.

Cessation of the Government

The Government is constituted through the process of approving its President and ceases by:

• General election (every four years)
• Early dissolution of the Cortes (Parliament)
• Loss of parliamentary confidence (motion of censure or vote of confidence)

Historical Context of the 17th Century

Following the Renaissance (15th and 16th centuries), the 17th century witnessed the emergence of the modern world across all levels of society. This period was marked by significant transformations in several key areas:

Economic Developments

There was substantial growth in trade and manufacturing. Early productive capital began to shift, gradually transforming feudal serfs into wage laborers, moving away from the guild system.

Political Landscape

Absolutist states, the first form of the modern state, dominated Europe, displacing feudal fiefs. Nobles were subjected to the absolute monarch (the sovereign), who, in turn, depended on lenders to finance the considerable costs of the centralized state. This included... Continue reading "17th-Century Transformation: Society, Science, Ideology" »

Key Historical Terms

Definitions: T7

• Music Economics: The Carlists pay a certain amount that would be collected by the provincial councils.
• Zanjón Peace: Spain promised Cuba a broad amnesty, the abolition of slavery, and political and administrative reforms.
• Electoral Fraud: Cheating coalitions, manipulations, and falsifications of the electoral census records.
• Peace of Paris: Spain ceded Cuba, and Jalal sold in Germany to the U.S. and the Pacific Marianas and the Carolines.
• Closure Cases: Boycott of the taxes imposed by Villaverde.

T8

• Federal Tortosa Pact: The federal Crown of Aragon wanted a federal state.
• Greuges Memorial: Unit of Catalan political manifesto.

T9

• Liga Agraria: Cerealistics Owners Association to act as a pressure group to achieve a

Newspapers: A Key Source of Information

A newspaper is a form of print media that informs the public about current events.

Features of a Newspaper

Newspapers are typically divided into sections. These sections include sports, entertainment, economy, opinion, and general information. The most important events are usually placed on the front page.

Newspaper Organization

Newspapers are generally organized with the front and back pages followed by national and international news.

Articles: Grammatical Components

An article is a type of word that precedes a noun, indicating whether it is specific or non-specific. Articles also denote the gender and number of the noun.

Article Classification

• Definite Articles: Used when the noun is known or specific.
• Neutral