Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

The Origins and Expansion of the European Union

Founding Treaties

• 1951 Paris Treaty: The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) was formed by six founding countries: Luxembourg, the Netherlands, France, West Germany, Italy, and Belgium.
• 1957 Treaty of Rome: Established the European Economic Community (EEC) and a common market, alongside EUROATOM for the development of nuclear energy.

EU Enlargement Timeline

• 1973: Ireland, the UK, and Denmark joined.
• 1980: Greece joined.
• 1986: Spain and Portugal joined.
• 1995: Sweden, Austria, and Finland joined.
• 2004: Poland, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Malta, and Cyprus joined.
• 2007: Romania and Bulgaria joined.
• 2013: Croatia joined.

The Schengen Agreement

Established in... Continue reading "History and Institutional Structure of the European Union" »

Democracy

A type of government where power is held by the people.

Characteristics

• Freedom: People are free to:
  • Give their opinion
  • Practice their own religion
  • Speak the language they want
• Equality: One person equals one vote; all people are equal under the law.
• Political Participation: All people can take part in politics through voting or being a representative.
• Representation: Representatives (political parties) act on behalf of the people.
• Division of Power: Essential for democratic function.

Division of Power

Legislative Power

Controlled by the parliament (e.g., Eusko Legebiltzarra). Tasks include:

• Approving and drafting laws
• Imposing taxes
• Discussing political topics

Executive Power

Controlled by the government. Tasks include:

• Directing internal and external

Defining Smart Cities

Smart cities optimize the use of technology in the design and operation of infrastructure and buildings to meet the current and future needs of their citizens. While there are few fully operational examples worldwide, there is a growing need to combine integrated “layers of smartness.” These layers should embrace not just resource efficiency, but also the promotion of good health, economic stability, a sense of shared community, and the ability to adapt to future challenges.

The Role of 5G in Urban Development

5G technology evolves the concept of wireless connectivity, enabling new methods for performance monitoring, assurance, and quality of service. This technology will impact various sectors of daily life, including:... Continue reading "The Future of Smart Cities and 5G Technology Integration" »

The New Deal of the 1930s

Following the Crash of '29, greater state interventionism became necessary.

1. The American New Deal created a social security system in 1935.
2. Initially, this system was only available for white people.

Defining the Welfare State

The Welfare State is a core concept in political and economic sciences. It designates a political proposal and general model of social organization where the State provides services in compliance with social rights to all inhabitants of a country.

It encompasses two aspects simultaneously:

• A political technology
• A social ontology

It was created primarily to solve the problem of social conflicts arising from the limitations of private insurance and mutual systems working. It primarily benefits the middle... Continue reading "The Welfare State: Origins, Keynesian Model, and the 1970s Crisis" »

We must distinguish between the grammatical category of tense and the semantic category of time. Time is a non-linguistic concept with three divisions: past, present, and future. Tense is a grammatical category that is realized by verb inflection; by tense, we understand the correspondence between the form of the verb and the concept of time. There are just two tenses in English, present and past. However, there is no obvious future tense in English corresponding to the time/tense relation for present and past. Instead, there are several possibilities for denoting future time.

The Term Aspect

refers to a grammatical category which concerns the manner in which a verbal action is experienced or regarded, for example, as complete or in progress.... Continue reading "Understanding Tense, Aspect, Number, and Concord in English Grammar" »

The Dawn of the Early Modern Age

The Early Modern Age began in 1453 with the Fall of Constantinople and ended with the French Revolution in 1789. From the 15th century, it noticed a recovery because of several key factors:

• The increase in agricultural products: Conserving the three-field system, which consisted of cultivating only two pieces of land while one was left fallow.
• Intensified commercial activity: Because there was a surplus of food, people started selling it in city markets. Merchants and traders established new trade routes.
• The expansion of craftsmanship: These were controlled by guilds (associations of craftsmen). The domestic system was created because people started making products at home.
• New explorations: Due to new explorations,

Why Politics and Social Divisions Should Not Mix

It is true that politics and social divisions should not be allowed to mix, as it often leads to negative results. This is particularly evident when caste begins to influence politics.

• Each caste group attempts to expand by incorporating neighbouring castes or subcastes that were previously excluded. This leads to the emergence of new caste groupings, such as backward and forward castes. This trend is unhealthy for democracy and can result in tensions, conflicts, and even violence. It also diverts attention from critical issues like poverty, development, and corruption.
• Political parties and candidates appeal to caste sentiment to garner support during elections. Some parties are known to favour

Introduction to the 1896 Labor Document

This text details the concerns and protests of workers against mandatory barracks living and canteen purchases. While the author is not explicitly named, it is widely attributed to a leader of the socialist party, UGT. Written in 1896, this document is considered a primary source of significant historical importance.

Historical Context of Late 19th Century Spain

At the time of this document's creation, Spain was undergoing a period of Restoration. Economically, agriculture held significant importance, contributing to a degree of national backwardness due to adherence to traditional practices. Concurrently, the nation was beginning its process of industrialization.

Economic Legislation and Worker Associations

Regarding... Continue reading "Workers' Rights and Labor Protests in 1896 Spain" »

American Camelot: The Kennedy Years (1960-1963)

The New Frontier Vision

On the occasion of his nomination at the 1960 Democratic Convention in Los Angeles, JFK delivered his famous:

JFK's "New Frontier" Speech

“[…] I stand here tonight facing west on what was once the last frontier. From the lands that stretch three thousand miles behind us, the pioneers gave up their safety, their comfort and sometimes their lives to build our new West. […] Some would say that those struggles are all over, that all the horizons have been explored, that all the battles have been won, that there is no longer an American frontier. But I trust that no one in this assemblage would agree with that sentiment; for the problems are not all solved and the battles