Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Social sciences

**ICT (Information and Communication Technologies)**

Failed States

Failed states are states that have failed to settle and live in a climate of civil war and continuing insecurity.

Clash of Civilizations

In the twenty-first century, world conflicts are not developed between nation-states, as in the preceding two centuries, but between large areas that share a similar cultural tradition.

Ethnic Cleansing

Ethnic cleansing is when inhabitants considered undesirable due to their religion or language were expelled from the regions under dispute, in order to achieve greater homogeneity of the population, rather than building multiethnic states to guarantee the rights of all citizens.

Velvet Revolution

The transition from Communist regimes to others, whether... Continue reading "ICT Impact on Global Conflicts and Humanitarian Issues" »

Understanding Capital and Company Objectives

Types of Capital

• Physical Capital: Elements or resources of physical activity used for the production of fixed or circulating assets.
• Human Capital: The level of preparation and training of workers.
• Financial Capital: Economic resources invested in financial assets deposited in the company.

Resource Allocation

Societies must allocate and manage scarce resources that can be used in many ways. Resource selection techniques for production are critical.

Distribution of Resources

Resources are distributed to those who wish to satisfy their needs, to support minimum consumption needs, and to address income disparities.

Company Objectives

• Maximize Profit: Achieve this by increasing revenue and reducing costs.
• Type

Four Visions of Music History

Music history can be viewed through four different lenses, each offering a unique perspective on what constitutes the primary substance of music and the appropriate methodology for its study:

• Functional

  Dominant in the 16th and 17th centuries, this perspective emphasizes the function of music. Genre was viewed as a substantive feature, defined by a fixed relationship between the purpose the music served and the techniques employed. Studying music history through this lens involves understanding it as a division of technical and institutional history. However, it may neglect other aspects and interrelationships.

• Representative

  This view posits that music's power lies in its representative capacity, distinct from expression.

EU Strategy for Disability Rights (1996)

In 1996, the European Union's strategy for disabled people was consolidated with the European Commission Communication on Equal Opportunities for Disabled People. This document incorporates standardized rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1993, and is committed to the notion of the right to accommodation of differences.

The Communication acknowledges that 10% of the population are disabled people who are excluded from rights and opportunities in a large majority of areas such as work, education, accessibility, mobility, housing, and welfare services, where coverage is insufficient and participation of those affected is limited.... Continue reading "Advancing Disability Inclusion in the European Union" »

The social sphere is intrinsically linked to the socialization process, a concept of vital importance for the development of individuals within society. The understanding of socialization is profoundly influenced by the dynamics of social development and the formation of personality.

Understanding Socialization, Acculturation, and Personalization

In this context, it is crucial to distinguish between three related but distinct concepts:

• Socialization: The process by which an individual learns the norms, values, behaviors, and social skills appropriate to their society or social group, leading to their integration.
• Acculturation: The process of cultural and psychological change that results from the contact between two or more cultures. For an individual,

19th Century Europe: Societal Transformations

The 19th century witnessed a gradual shift away from a society based on the privileges of the clergy and nobility. While calls for freedom of work and marriage were gaining traction, the aristocracy still held significant power and privileges throughout the century.

Rise of the Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat

The latter half of the 1800s saw the development of industry and commerce, leading to the bourgeoisie gaining prominence in political, social, economic, and cultural spheres. This period also marked the growth of a new urban and industrial proletariat. These workers, along with those in rural areas, formed a militant proletariat that often clashed with the bourgeois forces driving the new capitalist... Continue reading "19th Century Europe: Social Shifts and Romanticism" »

The shift from communal land use to private ownership, known as the Enclosure Acts, led many rural laborers to seek work in urban centers. This transition coincided with the mechanization of large farms, increasing productivity and profitability. By removing the fallow system, enclosed pastures further boosted agricultural output and farmer incomes. This agricultural development spurred industrial growth.

Economic Liberalism

Economic liberalism is an economic system characterized by private property, free enterprise, and free markets. Its theoretical foundation is rooted in the ideas of thinkers like Adam Smith.

Theoretical Basis of Economic Liberalism

Adam Smith argued that individual self-interest drives economic activity. He believed that wealth... Continue reading "The Enclosure Acts and Rise of Economic Liberalism" »

During the first months of the war, the power of the Republican state was fragmented among trade unions, political parties, and nationalist groups. Concurrently, a social revolution dominated most of the territory, which significantly weakened the authority of the Republican government.

Disintegration of Republican Power and Revolution

Between July and October 1936, power was distributed among multiple boards, committees, militias, revolutionary councils, and agencies. These entities, at regional, provincial, and local levels, supplanted the authority of the central government.

The absence of a single command hindered military operations. In Catalonia, popular power was exercised by the CNT-FAI. Armed militias organized the rear, managing transport,... Continue reading "Political Developments in the Republican Zone: War and Revolution" »

Psychic Nature of Political Power

The psychic aspect of political power, in the search for acceptance, lies in the conviction of the notion of legitimacy by those who are dominated. When power is legitimate, it is constituted in accordance with certain dominant beliefs. Therefore, there is not one single form of legitimacy (e.g., democracy, monarchy, communism).

Different Types of Political Power

According to Bertrand Russell

• Traditional: Where consent reigns.
• Revolutionary: Where ideology prevails.
• Naked: Where coercion prevails.

According to Maurice Duverger

• Immediate Power: Characteristic of primitive cities, with a fuzzy generalization of the entire group.
• Institutionalized Power: Subject to specific legal rules established for the purpose.

Issues

The territorial organization of a state refers to how power and territory relate within it.

Unitary Model

• Unitary: It arises in the French system as a reaction against the old regime, against the many centers of power. It tries to concentrate power in one center: there is only one state power. This motivates having a single executive, legislative, and judicial branch. The law is the same for all citizens, regardless of where they are in the territory. There is only one center of political leadership. The territorial organization is relevant only for administrative purposes.

Federal Model

• Federal: This model emerged from the independence of the British colonies of North America: the union of different states into one. There are several centers of